Monadology

The Monadology (La Monadologie, 1714) is one of Gottfried Leibniz’s most celebrated works, encapsulating his later philosophical ideas. In this concise text, composed of around 90 paragraphs, Leibniz presents a fascinating metaphysics of simple substances, or monads. He proposes a unique modification of occasionalism, as developed by later Cartesians, suggesting that there are countless substances, each programmed to function in a specific manner, all harmoniously coordinated with one another. This concept of pre-established harmony offers a solution to the mind-body problem, albeit at the cost of viewing interactions between substances as mere appearances—a notion Leibniz embraced. In his framework, even space becomes an illusion, as there is no need to differentiate between inside and outside. True substances are described as metaphysical points that are both real and precise—unlike mathematical points, which are exact yet not real, or physical points, which are real but lack precisi