Non+Religion Research Brief

Breskaya and Pereira Arena’s 2024 article, "Religious Nones and Spirituality: A Comparison between Italian and Uruguayan Youth," utilizes survey data from over 2,000 university students to challenge the oversimplification of "Nones" as a homogeneous group, revealing how their identities are deeply influenced by their national cultural contexts. The study finds that while Nones in both countries are predominantly male and prioritize individual autonomy in their spiritual journeys, Uruguayan Nones—who live in a more explicitly secularized society—paradoxically show stronger spiritual identities, higher rates of belief in God, and more frequent private prayer than their Italian counterparts. Conversely, Italian Nones are more likely to identify as atheists, reflecting a more potentially antagonistic stance toward the dominant Catholic tradition, whereas agnosticism is the more common skeptical position in Uruguay. Ultimately, the authors conclude that the spiritual lives of Nones are defined not just by a "lack" of religion, but by the unique, proactive ways they construct meaning within their specific social and secular environments.Full Citation:Breskaya, Olga, and Valentina Pereira Arena. 2024 "Religious Nones and Spirituality: A comparison between Italian and Uruguayan youth." Religions 15(7):769.

This article explores Thomas Luckmann’s influential perspective on secularization, framing it not as a simple decline in faith but as a modern myth of origin. The author explains that this "myth" serves as a narrative for society to define itself as modern by contrasting its current state with a religious past. While some critics use empirical data to argue that religion is objectively vanishing, Luckmann suggests that religion is actually being restructured and relocated into private and non-institutional spheres. The text critiques the limitations of defining religion so broadly that it becomes an essential human trait, which can conflict with evidence of purely secular societies. Ultimately, the source examines how different scholars view secularization as either a scientific fact, a political ideology, or a foundational story that shapes contemporary identity. This analysis highlights how religious authority has shifted toward public arenas like the judiciary, social media, and popular culture.Citation: Wohlrab-Sahr, Monika. 2026. “Secularization – Just a Myth or a Modern Myth of Origin? Thomas Luckmann’s Contribution to the Critique of Secularization.” Human Studies. doi:10.1007/s10746-026-09833-5.

This academic article explores the social and political status of atheism in Malaysia, a nation where national identity is deeply intertwined with Islamic and theistic principles. The authors characterize Malaysia as a post-plural society, arguing that while religious diversity is celebrated, it is organized under a framework that necessitates a belief in God and prioritizes Malay-Muslim identity. Consequently, atheism is often viewed as a "social symptom" or threat that challenges the country's foundational ideology, the Rukun Negara. The text analyzes the 2017 controversy surrounding an atheist gathering to illustrate how political and religious leaders use public indignation to reinforce conservative orthodoxy. However, the sources also highlight instances where interfaith dialogue and online spaces have allowed for limited public expressions of non-belief. Ultimately, the research demonstrates the paradoxical reality where atheism is simultaneously marginalized as a danger to the state and utilized as a tool for defining the boundaries of Malaysian citizenship.Citation: Duile, Timo, Ahmad Faizuddin Ramli, Willie Poh Kaw Lik, and Muhammad Aiman Abdul Fatah. 2025. “The (Im-)Possibilities of Public Atheism in Malaysia.” Asian Studies Review 49(3):624–41. doi:10.1080/10357823.2025.2450039.

This research explores why American Christians frequently harbor a deep-seated distrust toward atheists. Across four distinct studies, the authors identify a dual-pathway model consisting of internal and external factors that fuel this prejudice. Christians often view atheists as lacking an internal moral compass, specifically the "individualizing" foundations that prioritize compassion and the prevention of harm. Simultaneously, distrust is driven by an external route, where religious individuals believe that a watchful God is necessary to enforce ethical behavior through divine surveillance. The findings suggest that atheists are stereotyped as morally deficient because they are perceived to operate without both personal altruistic values and the accountability of a higher power. Consequently, these moral stereotypes play a more significant role in shaping social tension than simple theological disagreements.Citation: Wormley, Alexandra S., Anna Stefaniak, Samantha Hollingshead, and Michael J. A. Wohl. n.d. “A Dual Route to Distrust of Atheists: Perceiving Atheists to Lack Individualizing Moral Foundations and an External Moralizing Agent Heightens Christians’ Distrust.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. doi:10.1177/13684302261438589.

This research paper investigates the nature and diversity of secular worldviews by analyzing the beliefs of nearly 1,000 nonreligious individuals across 10 different countries. Rather than treating nonbelief as a mere absence of faith, the study uses an open-ended, data-driven approach to identify what these individuals actually value. The findings reveal that secular perspectives often center on science, humanism, and critical skepticism, while also emphasizing equality and natural laws. Statistical analysis identified three primary belief clusters: scientific worldviews, humanist worldviews, and nature-focused worldviews. These results suggest that while secularism varies by cultural context, it consistently provides a structured framework for understanding reality and morality. Ultimately, the study demonstrates that nonreligious worldviews are as complex and meaningful as traditional religious systems.van Mulukom, V., Turpin, H., Haimila, R., Purzycki, B. G., Bendixen, T., Kundtová Klocová, E., Řezníček, D., Coleman, T. J. III, Sevinç, K., Maraldi, E., Schjoedt, U., Rutjens, B. T., & Farias, M. (2023). What do nonreligious nonbelievers believe in? Secular worldviews around the world. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000480

In this article, scholars Galen Watts and Sarah Wilkins-Laflamme propose a significant revision to the secularization paradigm by introducing the concept of a secular sacred canopy. While traditional theories suggest that modernization simply erodes religious authority, the authors argue that advanced secular societies have actually developed their own cohesive cultural system rooted in scientific empiricism, naturalism, and romantic liberalism. This new framework shifts the analytical focus from individual beliefs to the institutionalized public scripts that grant moral and epistemic legitimacy in the modern West. By viewing secularism as a robust symbolic universe rather than a mere absence of religion, the researchers provide fresh explanations for the growth of nonreligion, the rise of individualized spirituality, and the emergence of right-wing populism. Ultimately, the text demonstrates that late-stage secularization involves a profound cultural transformation where secular ideals now function as the primary, taken-for-granted reality.Citation: Watts, Galen, and Sarah Wilkins-Laflamme. 2026. “The Secular Sacred Canopy: A Paradigm Revision in the Study of Secularization.” Sociological Theory 07352751261427015. doi:10.1177/07352751261427015.

This research study investigates the psychological and social experiences of individuals in the United States who were raised in the Islamic faith but have since transitioned to a nonbelieving worldview. The authors identify a misalignment of personal values—particularly regarding gender equality and LGBTQ+ rights—as a primary catalyst for leaving the religion, alongside a burgeoning intellectual doubt. While participants reported a profound sense of personal liberation and authenticity following their exit, they also navigated significant fears of social exclusion and familial strain. The findings highlight a unique tension where ex-Muslims must manage their secular identities while remaining vulnerable to Islamophobia and cultural erasure within the broader American context. Ultimately, the study suggests that constructing a personalized worldview allows these individuals to find peace, even as they balance the risks of disclosure with a desire to maintain cultural ties.

Appropriating the “Soul”: Evolving Understandings in Canada and the United StatesGaudette, Cragun, and Beaman’s 2025 article, "Appropriating the 'Soul': Evolving Understandings in Canada and the United States," investigates the significant "belief gap" in North America, where belief in a soul (75–84%) far outpaces belief in an afterlife (48–57%). Utilizing survey data from over 2,000 participants, the authors reveal that this discrepancy is especially pronounced among the religiously unaffiliated, 67% of whom report believing in a soul despite many rejecting other supernatural concepts like miracles or reincarnation. The study argues that nonreligious individuals are "appropriating" and redefining the term "soul" as a naturalistic "satisficing" term to describe human uniqueness, personality, or consciousness, rather than an immortal essence that survives physical death. Ultimately, the researchers suggest the soul has become a liminal concept—a form of "fuzzy fidelity" or "religious residue"—that allows the nonreligious to retain familiar religious language to express secular worldviews regarding the depth and substance of human identity.Full Citation: Gaudette, D., Cragun, R. T., & Beaman, L. G. (2026). Appropriating the “Soul”: Evolving Understandings in Canada and the United States. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie, 63(2), e70023.

This essay by Florian Zappe explores the evolution of secular ethics through the lens of the three Humanist Manifestos published between 1933 and 2003. Zappe argues that these documents function as strategic activist interventions designed to shift moral authority from divine origins to human agency. By examining them as a specific literary genre, he demonstrates how each text responded to unique historical crises, such as the Great Depression and the rise of religious nationalism. The author identifies a "tacit radicalism" in these works, noting that they challenge the theological foundations of American public life while maintaining a moderate tone. Ultimately, the source frames humanism not as a static doctrine, but as an adaptive project seeking to establish universal values within a purely secular framework.(Citation: Zappe, Florian. 2026. “Secular Ethics in Times of Crisis: On the Tacit Radicalism of the Humanist Manifestos I–III (1933, 1973, 2003).” New American Studies Journal 78. doi:10.18422/78-2695.)

This research article by Matthew Conrad and Conrad Hackett examines how methodological shifts in surveys and censuses can falsely inflate the reported growth of religiously unaffiliated populations. While secularization is a global trend, the authors argue that changes in question wording, such as using non-presumptive language or two-step "filter" questions, make comparisons with older data difficult. Structural changes to questionnaires, such as moving the "no religion" option to the top of a list or introducing it as a distinct category, also encourage more people to select it. Furthermore, the transition from in-person interviews to online formats can introduce nonresponse bias by disproportionately excluding more religious, older participants. The authors emphasize that consistent measurement is essential to distinguish between genuine social evolution and mere artifacts of data collection. Overall, the text serves as a methodological caution against taking dramatic statistical rises in nonreligion at face value without considering how the data was gathered.(Citation: Conrad, Matthew, and Conrad Hackett. 2026. “How Measurement Changes Can Exaggerate the Growth of Religious ‘Nones.’” Sociological Science 13:89–108. doi:10.15195/v13.a5.)

This research article by Alexandr Zamușinski examines The Clergy Project (TCP), an international support network designed for religious leaders who no longer believe in the supernatural. The study challenges common misconceptions—such as those voiced by critics like Albert Mohler Jr.—that the organization is a militant, anti-religious front. Instead, the author uses grounded theory and interviews to show that TCP serves as a transitional sanctuary for professionals navigating the social and emotional trauma of deconversion. Findings reveal a highly diverse membership, where 47% of participants reject the "atheist" label and many maintain a nuanced, non-hostile view of religion's social utility. Ultimately, the source highlights that many of these former clergy members prioritize community and practical support over anti-religious activism. Zamușinski, Alexandr. 2025. "Understanding the Role of the Clergy Project: Misconceptions and Realities of a Support Network for Nonbelieving Clergy." Secularism and Nonreligion 14 (1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.211

This article, "Invisible secularity: American theism beyond belief," argues that traditional social indicators like church attendance and religious affiliation actually mask a more profound decline in personal religiosity in the United States. Utilizing data from the Baylor Religion Survey (2005–2021) and the General Social Survey (1972–2022), Voas demonstrates that even among Americans who continue to identify as religious, the substance, strength, salience, and stability of theistic belief are steadily eroding across generations. The research highlights a significant shift away from an "authoritative God"—one perceived as personally engaged and judgmental—toward views of God as distant, indifferent, or nonexistent. Furthermore, the study challenges the notion that alternative spirituality is filling the void left by organized religion, finding instead that the "spiritual but not religious" population has plateaued and that the religiously unaffiliated ("nones") are becoming increasingly secular over time. Ultimately, Voas concludes that this "invisible secularity" represents a genuine cultural shift where God has become less central to how individuals understand their lives and moral authorityFull Citation:Voas, David. 2025. "Invisible Secularity: American Theism Beyond Belief." Social Forces 104(1): 366-385.

This research article by Jonathan Simmons explores the overlooked experiences of Indigenous atheists in Canada, a group often ignored due to the stereotype that Indigenous identity is inherently spiritual. Through interviews with eighteen participants, the study examines how these individuals navigate anti-atheist stigma and the pressure to conform to both Christian and traditional spiritual norms. Many participants reported a gradual deconversion driven by skepticism or the historical trauma associated with colonial religious institutions. The text highlights a significant struggle for belonging, as many feel forced to hide their lack of belief to maintain community solidarity. Furthermore, the findings reveal a dissatisfaction with mainstream atheist organizations, which are often perceived as exclusionary white spaces that fail to grasp the complexities of Indigenous culture. Ultimately, the source advocates for a more diverse understanding of nonreligion that recognizes the distinct challenges faced by marginalized groups. --- (Simmons, Jonathan. 2024. “Indigenous Atheists in Canada.” Secular Studies 6 (1): 62–83. DOI:10.1163/25892525-bja10060).

This deep-dive podcast explores the "Exvangelical" movement through the lens of Bethany Gull's research, focusing on how former white evangelical Christians in the U.S. utilize specific culturally available narratives to reconstruct their identities after leaving their faith. The discussion unpacks three primary narrative "threads": emergence/redemption, which focuses on "coming out" and making amends for past evangelical beliefs; trauma/survival, which frames evangelical doctrines as harmful and highlights the resilience of survivors; and ride-the-current, which depicts the exit as a natural, rational evolution driven by personal temperament or external evidence. Listeners will gain insight into how these "good stories" function within digital communities on platforms like Twitter and Facebook to help exiters turn their private, internal struggles into shared, socially understandable experiences that facilitate collective action and support. The episode highlights that religious disaffiliation is an inherently social process where language and community expectations shape the very way individuals understand their own life stories.Full citation: Gull, Bethany. 2025. Unweaving the Tapestry: The Emplotment of “Exvangelical” Narratives of Religious Change. Sociology of Religion, p.sraf013.

This article explores the Participation-Importance-Belonging (P-I-B) sequence, a robust model that explains the consistent stages of secularization observed worldwide. It unpacks how modernization and the rise of secular institutions—such as biomedicine and welfare states—offer more efficient solutions to life’s problems, leading to an intergenerational breakdown of religious socialization. The discussion covers the three sequential phases of decline: the initial drop in public ritual participation, followed by a decrease in the private importance of religion, and finally, the shedding of nominal religious affiliation. Drawing on data from over 100 countries, the overview highlights how this pattern manifests across major traditions—including Christian, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist contexts—while also identifying unique deviations, such as the transitory religious revivals seen in post-communist Eastern EuropeFull Citation:Stolz, Jörg, Nan Dirk de Graaf, Conrad Hackett, and Jean-Philippe Antonietti. 2025. "The Three Stages of Religious Decline Around the World." Nature Communications 16( 1): 7202.

This study utilizes structural topic modeling to analyze over 1,600 academic articles published between 2001 and 2022, seeking to organize the complex global debate surrounding secularization. The researchers identify thirteen distinct themes, categorizing them into four primary clusters: institutional differentiation, individual religious decline, critical theories, and specific religious traditions. While macro-level research explores how religion separates from law, politics, and science, micro-level studies focus on shifting personal beliefs and demographic trends. The analysis also tests for institutional parochialism, finding that while scholars often prioritize religious groups within their own geographic regions, topics like Islam and Asian religions receive significant attention from Western researchers. Ultimately, the paper concludes that although the field is diversifying its interests, the production of secularization literature remains heavily concentrated among Western institutions.(Rainero, Valeria, and Ruud Luijkx. [online before print] “The Contemporary Debate on Secularization and Its Cross-National Variation: A Systematization Through Topic Modeling.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. doi:10.1111/jssr.70033.)

This scholarly article by Maria Vliek examines the personal narratives of individuals in the Netherlands and Britain who have transitioned out of Islam. Moving beyond a narrow focus on "loss of faith," Vliek identifies four distinct thematic trajectories—religious break, social break-away, the entrance, and unconscious secularization—to describe how participants negotiate their changing identities. The study utilizes Dialogical Self Theory to show that these transformations are shaped not only by theology, but by complex political, social, ethnic, and gendered contexts. Vliek observes that while British narratives often center on a definitive "ex-Muslim" identity supported by organized groups, Dutch accounts frequently involve a more gradual or passive distancing from religion. Ultimately, the research emphasizes that the process of leaving Islam is a multifaceted transformation of the self rather than a simple rejection of religious dogma.(Vliek, Maria. 2019. “‘It’s Not Just about Faith’: Narratives of Transformation When Moving Out of Islam in the Netherlands and Britain.” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 30(3):323–44. doi:10.1080/09596410.2019.1628459.)

This article explores how debates about ghosts became a key battleground in China’s early twentieth-century struggle over modernity. Using a large dataset of historical newspapers and periodicals, the authors analyze how intellectuals argued for and against the existence of ghosts during the Republican era. Reformers often treated ghost belief as superstition and used scientific, psychological, and rational explanations to explain why people believed in spirits. In doing so, they reframed the issue from a question about whether ghosts exist to a question about why people believe in them. The study shows how public debates about ghosts helped advance broader secular critiques of traditional religion and promote a modern, scientific worldview in China.(Citation: Hong, Ze, and Yuqi Chen. 2026. “The Rhetoric of Disenchantment: Ghost Belief and Secular Critique in Early Twentieth-Century China.” Cognitive Science 50(1):e70158. doi:10.1111/cogs.70158.)

What do people who strongly value science think happens after we die? This article examines that question by analyzing open-ended responses from nearly 400 science-oriented Finns recruited through pro-science organizations. As expected, many respondents described death in secular terms—seeing consciousness as ending when the body stops functioning. But the story doesn’t end there. Even among highly science-oriented participants, many expressed forms of “continuity,” such as living on in memories, social contributions, offspring, or the natural cycles of the universe. The study suggests that even in highly secular contexts, people still search for ways to imagine some form of continuity beyond death.(Citation: Haimila, Roosa, and Elisa Muraja. 2023. “A Sense of Continuity in Mortality? Exploring Science-Oriented Finns’ Views on Afterdeath.” OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying 88(1):38–65. doi:10.1177/00302228211038820.)

This article tackles a provocative question: do scholars’ own religious beliefs influence the conclusions they reach about secularization? The authors build a large dataset of researchers who study religious change and link survey data on their personal religiosity to the findings reported in their publications. The results show a clear pattern: more religious scholars are less likely to believe in the secularization thesis and less likely to report evidence for it in their research, while more secular scholars are more likely to support it. The study suggests that the long-running debate over secularization may reflect not just evidence about religion’s decline, but also the beliefs of the scholars studying it.(Citation: Rainero, V., Stolz, J., & Luijkx, R. (2026). The Faith Factor. How Scholars’ Religiosity Biases Research Findings on Secularization. Sociological Science, 13, 154–177. https://doi.org/10.15195/v13.a7)

This article examines why Israeli Jewish atheists still circumcise their sons. Drawing on interviews with 30 self-identified atheists, the study finds that the decision is rarely about religious belief. Instead, parents frame circumcision as a cultural, social, and bodily marker of Jewish belonging. Many participants express emotional ambivalence—sometimes even regret—but still proceed because of social expectations, family pressure, medical rationalizations, or a desire to connect their children to Jewish identity and history. The findings suggest that religious traditions can persist even without faith, functioning as embodied cultural practices that signal membership, continuity, and shared peoplehood rather than theological commitment.(Citation: Friedman, T. (2025). Embodying Tradition and Ascribing Meaning: Israeli Jewish Atheists Choosing to Circumcise Their Sons. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 64(4), 442–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12964)

This research article investigates whether declining religiosity in the United States leads to a decrease in charitable giving. By analyzing data from the 2023 Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the authors compare the philanthropic habits of religious individuals against atheists, agnostics, and "nones." The findings indicate that while nonreligious people are significantly less likely to donate to religious organizations, they contribute to secular charities at rates similar to their religious counterparts. Once demographic factors like income, wealth, and education are controlled, religious affiliation becomes a negligible predictor of how much or how often someone gives to non-sectarian causes. The study concludes that the ongoing secularization of society does not pose a threat to the health of the secular nonprofit sector. Ultimately, the authors suggest that secular individuals are motivated by the same prosocial values as religious believers, ensuring that total generosity remains high even as church attendance falls. (Citation: Cragun, R. T., Rodriguez, A., Smith, J., & Speed, D. (2026). Religiosity is Declining BUT Giving is Increasing: Can the Nonreligious Really Be Less Generous? Secularism and Nonreligion, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.164)

This research article by Lucy Elizabeth Potter examines the intersection of apostasy and forced migration, focusing on the emotional journeys of individuals who leave religion in restrictive societies. Through interviews and policy analysis, the author highlights the psychological strain involved in renouncing a faith and the subsequent struggle to prove a non-religious identity during the UK’s asylum process. She argues that Refugee Status Determination procedures often lack the framework to recognize the internal, invisible nature of atheism, frequently leading to a "culture of disbelief." This creates significant barriers to protection for apostates, who must perform "emotional legibility" to satisfy bureaucratic requirements for credibility. Ultimately, the study advocates for a more empathetic, trauma-informed approach that acknowledges the unique challenges faced by non-religious refugees seeking safety. (Full Citation: Potter, L. E. (2026). Becoming Non-Religious: Exploring the Emotional Experiences of Apostasy and Refugee Status Determination. Secularism and Nonreligion, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.232)