The Pax Romana Podcast

What does it take to hold an empire together when the emperor is a child? Who really rules— the man with the title, or the man with the army? And how long can that arrangement last before it begins to crack? In the early fifth century AD, the western Roman Empire faced precisely this problem. A boy, Honorius, sat on the throne, while a general, Stilicho, governed in his name, winning wars, managing crises, and shaping policy. For a time, it worked. The empire held together, threats were contained, and order seemed restored. But beneath that stability lay tensions—between appearance and reality, authority and power—that would eventually prove impossible to sustain.Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

In 395, the Roman Empire did not collapse, but it lost the ability to act as a single, coordinated system. Two emperors inherited the empire—Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West—but neither truly governed. Power lay with the men around them. Among those men, one stood out: Stilicho, the western general who claimed to act for the unity of the empire itself.Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

On January 19, AD 379, at Sirmium, a Latin-speaking westerner from Spain named Flavius Theodosius was invested with the imperial purple. He was a man for the times but, in many ways, a man out of place; he was expected to rule a Greek-speaking East and a church deeply fractured by doctrinal disputes. His reign, spanning nearly sixteen years, would see him outlive his imperial colleagues and briefly, yet significantly, unify the Roman Empire under his sole rule for the last time in history. Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

After the disaster of Adrianople, the Roman Empire struggled to rebuild its army and restore order. But in AD 390, a riot in the city of Thessalonica spiraled into one of the most infamous episodes of late Roman history. How did the arrest of a single charioteer lead to the death of a Roman general? Why did imperial troops suddenly turn on a crowd in the city’s hippodrome? And how did the aftermath bring a powerful bishop into conflict with the emperor himself?Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

The Battle of Adrianople in August of AD 378 was one of Rome’s worst military disasters. A refugee crisis at the edge of the empire turned into a bloody afternoon battle that shattered the Roman and changed imperial policy forever. What led the Romans into the Battle of Adrianople? Why did the emperor Valens rush into battle? What did the loss mean for the future of the Empire?Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Jovian ruled the Roman Empire for barely eight months (AD 363–364), yet his reign reveals how imperial power functioned in moments of extreme crisis. Elevated suddenly after Julian’s death deep in Persia, Jovian faced the immediate task of saving a stranded Roman army. He chose negotiation over annihilation and stabilized Rome’s eastern frontier for generations. His death from carbon monoxide poisoning cut short what was sure to be a contentious reign.Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Did the emperor Aurelian's big coin reform in the 270s AD shatter public trust in the money system? Did it shift value from faith in the government to just the metal in the coins? I wrote most of an article addressing these issues, but never got around to publishing it. So I use this podcast episode to make an argument that the system was already crumbling decades before Aurelian. And Aurelian's changes were in fact a clever fix. The price inflation that followed was disruptive, but it also proved the reform worked, clearing up confusion and stabilizing markets.Read Haklai (2011), 'Aurelian’s Monetary Reform: Between Debasement and Public Trust'.Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Disease shaped population levels, military strength and the stability of imperial institutions in the Roman Empire. Smallpox, a highly lethal viral disease known from the early modern period and eradicated only in the twentieth century, has long been assumed to have been part of that ancient disease environment. A recent-ish article in the Journal of Roman Studies challenges that assumption, showing that there is no firm evidence that the classical form of smallpox existed in the Roman world. This article helped shape my own thinking in my book, Pox Romana, and I'm thrilled to take the time to explain the article's argument and why it matters for Roman history.Read Newfield et al. (2022), 'Smallpox's Antiquity in Doubt'Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

363 AD: Emperor Julian, Rome’s last pagan ruler, wagered everything on a massive invasion of Persia to eclipse Alexander the Great and prove that the old gods blessed his empire. He crossed into Persia with tens of thousands of soldiers and a thousand supply ships. Fortresses fell, cities burned and Ctesiphon itself lay within reach. But Julian's careful efforts were undone by his own hubris. His death in battle ended both an emperor and pagan Rome’s final hope. Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

In AD 361, Flavius Claudius Julianus--Julian "The Apostate"--entered Constantinople as the unexpected sole Augustus of the Roman world. Here was a thirty-year-old philosopher-king who had spent the previous decade dissimulating Christianity while privately offering midnight sacrifices to pagan gods.He had roughly twenty months left to live. In that brief span he attempted nothing less than the systematic reversal of forty years of Constantinian religious policy. Was Julian genuinely committed to a pluralistic empire in which paganism would simply be allowed to reassert itself, or was his proclaimed “toleration” from the very beginning a calculated strategy of cultural and institutional strangulation designed to break Christianity without ever giving it the propaganda gift of martyrs?Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Julian the Apostate is a well-documented and fascinating figure--a secret pagan who wound up ruling the Christian Roman Empire. This episode examines the formative years that transformed a survivor of a dynastic purge into the last pagan emperor. How did isolation shape his intellectual trajectory? How did he find himself second-in-command of the Roman Empire? And how did he win glory for himself, so much so that he was able to challenge the emperor that likely murdered his family?Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

In 355 AD, Silvanus, a high-ranking officer in the Roman Empire faced treason charges from forged letters. The emperor, Constantius II had him executed. But also, after learning that the letters were forged, the emperor pardoned the conspirators. Why else would he do all this unless he was either gullible or cruel? Well, the ancient historian who wrote about this episode, Ammianus Marcellinus, may have lied about what happened. He also happened to have bene in the party that ultimately assassinated Silvanus. Something very fishy happened--and a recent article offers a new theory for sorting it all out.Read "Fraud and Forgery in the Reign of Constantius II: The Silvanus Affair of 355 CE" by Katherine Lagenfeld: https://biblioscout.net/article/10.25162/historia-2025-0020Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Constantine's sons fought one another for control over their father's Empire. The last one standing was Constantius II. But even after conquering the Empire, his problems were only just beginning. He had Alemanni invading in the west, the Persian threat in the east and religious schisms across the increasingly Christian Roman Empire. He would attempt to stabilize the Empire, but was he successful?

In AD 337, Constantine's sons--Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans--and nephew Dalmatius, inherited a vast empire. But dynastic rivalries erupted in a brutal summer massacre. Who was killed, and who orchestrated the purge? How did the survivors divide the Roman world? What lasting impact did the civil wars that followed have on the Empire's stability?Donate: ⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity, stands as a pivotal figure in late antiquity, bridging the classical world and the emerging Byzantine era. His reign transformed the empire, yet, as Constantine entered his sixties, he continued to plan for wars and also the succession at the same time. How did his dynastic plans unfold? What were his plans for foreign policy? How did he ultimately divide his empire?

The Age of Constantine bridged the Classical World and the world of Late Antiquity. This era has a reputation for being economically troubled, but the reality is far more complicated. This episode ruminates on the defining features of Constantine's economy, with special focus on agriculture, urbanization, money, government finances and the growing economic power of the Christian church.Donate: ⁠⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

In AD 330, Constantine the Great established Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire--transforming his empire, and the world. Constantine built a cultural and economic powerhouse, and a city associated with Christendom. It was a city that, depending on your perspective, helped usher in the end of the Roman Empire, or perhaps aided its preservation. Why did Constantine pick the site of Constantinople? How did he develop the city? How did Constantine's new Christian identity articulate itself in the new capital?Donate: ⁠⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

In 325 AD, a gathering of bishops in a small town near Constantinople changed the course of Christianity and the Roman Empire forever. Known as the Council of Nicaea, this wasn’t just a theological debate—it was a collision of imperial power and religious authority. At its heart was Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, whose dream of a unified empire under one God reshaped church and state. But why did Constantine step into this religious fray? How did his decisions at Nicaea influence the future of Western civilization? Donate: ⁠https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: ⁠https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Was Constantine's conversion to Christianity genuine? How did it reshape Roman politics and culture? Evidence from Lactantius and Eusebius suggests a sincere conversion, with a divine vision sparking his faith, though political pragmatism shaped its expression. His actions, like the Edict of Milan and church-building, wove Christianity into Roman identity, transforming the empire. Constantine’s legacy established Christianity as Rome’s cornerstone, hinting at a complex blend of faith and strategy that redefined Western history.Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

The Third Century Crisis prompted Diocletian’s Tetrarchy in 293 AD--a bold four-ruler system to restore order. Then, in 303, Diocletian inaugurated the Great Persecution of Christians. Religion and politics intersected when Diocletian abdicated in 305, setting in motion a chain of events which prompted a succession crisis and empowered a new usurper, Constantine, to make a play for Rome. How did Constantine come to power and how did his rise intersect with the fall of the tetrarchy and sweeping religious changes in the Roman Empire?⁠⁠Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

What happens when a society’s protectors turn on its elites? Why did the Roman military, with its fierce loyalty and unity, eclipse the wealthy senators of the Pax Romana? How did Rome’s own soldiers, alienated and rootless, turn into “barbarians” within? Peter Turchin's insights offer some useful food for thought.⁠⁠Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.

Diocletian’s Edict on Maximum Prices was a bold attempt to combat hyperinflation. It was sold with moralizing rhetoric--not unlike rhetoric in favor of anti-price-gouging laws or wage and price controls in modern states. Diocletian blamed greed instead of addressing currency issues. Did the Price Edict work?⁠Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠⁠.

The Roman Empire under Diocletian saw sweeping changes that reshaped its core. Provinces were reorganized and multiplied to tighten administrative control. The bureaucracy swelled, with tens of thousands of officials managing the sprawling empire. Peasants were bound to the land they worked, securing a steady flow of taxes and labor. Meanwhile, the military's reach deepened, its influence seeping into daily life.⁠Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠⁠.

Diocletian a low-born Illyrian, rose to emperor in a period of crisis. Instead of waiting for another civil war to erupt, he appointed Maximian to co-rule with him, and handle the problematic western empire. But as problems with invading armies and usurpers continued, Diocletian took the dramatic step of appointing additional emperors in AD 293, establishing the Tetrarchy ('Rule of Four Men'). This militarized system concentrated power in the hands of four absolute autocrats, sidelining the Senate and marking the shift from Principate to Dominate.Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠.

Turmoil resumed following Emperor Aurelian’s assassination in AD 275. Rapidly changing emperors, barbarian invasions and internal strife defined the years 275-284. Within this chaos, Diocles, a low-born Dalmatian soldier, seized power in 284. But instead of joining the long list of warlords that only temporarily won power before falling in civil war, he laid a new foundation for a transformative era in Roman politics.Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠.

Students often ask me for Roman Empire book recommendations. Listeners have as well. It is easy to find popular histories, but here I discuss eleven excellent hidden gems--books that are great for the causal reader, but robust enough that I’ve used them in my research and teaching. These aren’t popular titles, but they’re brilliantly crafted by leading academics, diving deep into Rome’s history, culture, religion and economy. Each book is well-written, accessible, and budget-friendly, perfect for history fans and students eager to explore Rome’s epic story.Book List:Rome: An Empire’s Story by Greg WoolfThe Fall of the Roman Empire by Peter HeatherMarcus Aurelius by Antony BirleyWorld Full of Gods by Keith HopkinsThe Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History by Rodney StarkPerpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire by Jennifer A. Rea and Liz ClarkeFrom Caesar to Augustus: Using Coins as Sources by Clare RowanHypatia: The Life and Legend of an Ancient Philosopher by Edward WattsThe Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism by Neville MorleyThe Roman Market Economy by Peter TeminThe Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture by Peter Garnsey and Richard SallerDonate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the 1st-century Roman Stoic, sparks endless debate. His works, like Letters to Lucilius and On the Shortness of Life, preach virtue, simplicity, and resilience. Yet, Seneca amassed a fortune of 300 million sesterces, owned lavish villas and advised Nero. Critics call him a hypocrite. His Stoic writings inspire, but do they align with his actions? This tension defines his legacy. Was Seneca a true Stoic, or was he a fraud?

Listeners and students have asked me who my favorite Roman emperor is. Lists of the "best" emperors often highlight giants like Augustus, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius—undeniably impressive for their conquests and governance. But my favorite, for personal reasons, is a man overlooked by many historians and dismissed by the writers of his time. A blue-blooded elite, he seized power in a chaotic coup, faced senatorial scorn, yet ruled effectively. He expanded the empire, improved infrastructure, and, remarkably, seemed to enjoy himself while doing it. Who is this underappreciated emperor? Check out the episode to find out.Donate: https://www.paypal.com/ncp/payment/WZTWCMWCJJYFC⁠⁠YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ProfCPE⁠Buy Professor Elliott's newest book:⁠⁠Pox Romana: The Plague that Shook the Roman World⁠⁠.

Ancient Rome--the heart of an empire--was fed by a vast network of ships and storehouses that brought grain from distant lands like Egypt and Africa. The Roman state orchestrated this colossal effort, called the Annona, to feed its citizens, a feat unmatched in the pre-industrial world. But behind this marvel lay a darker story—rural farmers stripped of their harvests, urban masses dependent on handouts and a system driven by political ambition. Today, we’ll explore this complex machine that kept Rome alive and ask: was the Roman government’s grain dole system helpful or harmful?

In first-century Galilee, King Herod Antipas’s stable rule provided a relatively peaceful setting for Jesus of Nazareth, born around 4 BC, to emerge as a Jewish preacher, promoting repentance and the kingdom of God. Conversely, Judea faced turmoil under Roman prefects like Pontius Pilate. By around AD 30, Jesus entered Jerusalem, and was crucified within a week. But was Jesus a mere mythological figure, or did he really exist? Ancient sources outside the New testament canon in fact confirm that Jesus was real. Josephus’s Antiquities (AD 93–94) describes Jesus as a wise man crucified under Pilate; Tacitus’s Annals (AD 116) notes “Christus” suffered 'the extreme penalty'; Pliny the Younger’s letters (AD 112) affirm a growing movement of Christ-followers almost a century after Jesus' crucifixion.

Roman emperors governed a sprawling empire, from Britain to Syria—but how did they maintain control over such vast lands? Did they rely on spies to monitor their enemies and ensure loyalty? Enter the frumentarii, a mysterious group of soldiers originally tasked with grain supply. History reveals they evolved into agents of espionage, assassination, and taxation, serving emperors like Hadrian and Severus. This episode uncovers their shadowy roles—and why their power crumbled under Diocletian.

Did Romans trust their money? Roman officials required legal exchange rates, but not everyone obeyed them--especially when mints adulterated or debased precious metal coinage. Only scant evidence of rebellion survives, but there are hints that show Romans inventing new conventions--some quite elegant. How overt was monetary defiance? Marcus Cornelius Fronto, famed rhetorician and tutor to Emperor Marcus Aurelius, once told the emperor in a letter: “Cleave to the old coinage”. Romans trusted coins when they were reliable, but were skeptical of newly debased coin .

On March 15, 44 BC, Julius Caesar, appointed dictator for life, was assassinated by senators led by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius. Caesar’s dictatorship, his military conquests, populist reforms and unprecedented power seemed like the style of monarchy the Republic was meant to guard against. The conspirators against Caesar justified the killing as a constitutional defense against tyranny. Yet, their motives were questionable, and the outcome of the assassinate simply led to more tyranny. So was the assassination of Julius Caesar justified?

In 58 BC, Julius Caesar embarked on a campaign that transformed Gaul—modern France, Belgium, and beyond—into a Roman province . What propelled this conquest? Strategic fears had long haunted Rome, from the Gallic sack of the 390s BC to Germanic pressures across the Rhine. Economic prospects tantalized as well. Yet Caesar’s ambition loomed largest, and his victories reshaped what had been a frontier into the Roman Empire’s heartland.

Rome’s early Republic leaned on its legions, with no real navy to speak of—until Carthage, a sea-dominating empire, sparked the First Punic War in 264 BC. Exposed and outmatched, Rome turned the tide in 261 BC, reverse-engineering a captured Carthaginian ship to craft a fleet of quinqueremes. Armed with ingenious corvus boarding bridges, Rome's new navy stunned Carthage, and launched Rome as a Mediterranean powerhouse. How did land-locked Rome master the seas?

Aurelian—a gritty Balkan soldier—seized a crumbling Roman Empire in AD 270. His five-year reign still stuns: how did he crush Germanic hordes, topple Zenobia’s Palmyrene Empire and reunite the Gallic Empire under Roman rule? But Aurelian was more than a conqueror. He constructed miles of walls around Rome, and erected a massive temple to Sol Invictus--god of the unconquered sun.

As a lethal plague tore through Rome, Persian king Sapor I struck the Empire’s east, capturing Emperor Valerian—a staunch senator and fierce Christian persecutor—after his bold counterattack failed. Internal strife and external foes shattered Rome into three warring realms: the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires rose amidst the chaos. Would the third century witness Rome’s doom?

In AD 249, the Plague of Cyprian swept through the Roman Empire. Named after Cyprian of Carthage, who vividly described its horrors, this plague led to loss of life and increased imperial destabilization during an already turbulent time. Accounts from Cyprian and Dionysius of Alexandria highlight the plague's severity, noting it seemed to threaten the very existence of humanity. At the same time, the emperor Trajan Decius issued an edict requiring universal sacrifice to Roman gods across the entire Empire, putting Christians in the crosshairs. How did the Christian community respond to both the plague and the persecution under Decius?

The Crisis of the Third Century began with the assassination of Severus Alexander, leading to Maximinus Thrax's brief and unpopular rule. Maximinus treated Rome like his own personal piggy bank--looting everything from senatorial estates, to local funds for festivals and celebrations. he was assinated in AD 238, also known as the Year of the Six Emperors. By the end of that year, a pre-teen boy sat alone on the throne. It was his task to try to save a beleaguered and besieged Roman Empire.

The Roman monetary system--one of the worlds most stable and trusted monetary systems for nearly 500 years, seems to have collapsed in the third century AD. Rapid debasements made Roman silver coins nearly valueless. This economic instability may have prompted inhabitants of the Roman Empire to stop using currency in some regions. In just the AD 270s alone, prices rose by around 1,000%. What happened to Roman currency and could anything have been done differently?

Was the third century AD a period of crisis or transformation? The prevalence of war, economic strain and demographic collapse certainly seems compelling. And yet, this same period could be viewed as a transformation where Rome adapted, with power shifting from traditional elites to military figures, and where cultural, religious, and social structures evolved. Was the constant warfare a sign of an empire's decline, or was it forging a new and more sustainable system?

Cassius Dio, a Roman historian and senator, seems to have foreseen the tumultuous times the Roman Empire was about to experience in the Crisis of the Third Century. His proposed reforms come to us through the lens of his famous debate between Agrippa and Maecenas in his epic history of Rome. Dio envisioned a stable, centralized Roman Empire, including a professional standing army, fiscal responsibility and a nuanced balance of power between the Senate and the Emperor. I analyze these prescient warnings and discuss the extent to which they might have been successful.

Alexander Severus, Roman Emperor from 222 to 235 AD, ascended to power under the guardianship of his mother and grandmother. He offered a serious foreign policy--aimed at stabilizing increasingly fragile borders to both the north and east of the Empire. But the Crisis of the Third Century was looming, and Rome's legions apparently no longer wished to have peace--preferring instead the profits of foreign and civil wars.

Elagabalus, the 14-year-old priest-king, became emperor in AD 218 and tried to impose the sun god El-Gabal as Rome's chief deity. His reign was marked by multiple marriages, accusations of effeminacy and unrest in Rome. He was such a disaster of an emperor that his own grandmother sough to replace him with his cousin, Alexander.

Four days after Caracalla's assassination, the outsider Macrinus was in charge of an unstable Roman Empire. He bribed his way into a temporary peace with Parthia, but alienated his own soldiers. Was Macrinus' short reign a case of good intentions gone awry, or was he simply out of his depth?

GLADIATOR II promises to recapture the magic but stumbles with plot holes, CGI overload, and historical blunders! I dissect the narrative fumbles, the unearned character arcs, and the jarring anachronisms that leave you more disappointed than entertained. From battle scenes that feel like a video game to the nostalgia that can't save this sequel, discover why Gladiator II might just be one of the most disappointing films of the year.

Caracalla thought himself a reincarnated Alexander the Great. In reality, he was a tyrant and a mass murderer. After some actors in Alexandria mocked Caracalla's rumored role in his brother's death, Caracalla butchered thousands of people in the city. The emperor then launched a failed campaign against Parthia. The only reason government continued to function was due to Caracalla's dutiful and wise mother, Julia Domna. By AD 217, her son Caracalla would be killed under the orders of his own Praetorian Prefect.

Caracalla rewarded his soldiers, and scored all other men--as his father Septimius Severus advised him. He stole property, murdered elites, put in new inheritance taxes and debased the Roman coinage. The temporary windfall allowed him to pass out a huge salary increase to his soldiers, but the long term effects of these policies would be greater economic pain in the future. Caracalla then stunned the Empire by unilaterally declaring universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman provinces.

Septimius Severus, aiming for stability, made his sons Caracalla and Geta (of Gladiator II fame) co-emperors, which only fueled their rivalry. His last years were then spent campaigning in Britain, where harsh conditions and guerrilla warfare halted Roman advances. Then in AD 211, in the city of Eboracum (modern York, England), Septimius died. With his father out of the way, Septimius' older son Caracalla murdered his younger brother Geta, initiating a purge and condemning Geta's memory--setting a violet precedent for the years that followed.

Perpetua, a Christian martyr in the early 3rd century AD Roman Empire, left behind a rare firsthand account that provides profound insights into the personal experiences of early Christian martyrdom. Her diary, which details her imprisonment and thoughts up to her execution, offers a unique perspective on the spiritual strength, societal defiance, and the internal conflict faced by individuals living under Roman rule. Her story highlights the dynamics of religion, gender, and power, showcasing the depth of commitment required by early Christians facing persecution.