Are The Pyramids in Egypt a Psyops? The American Experiment: Who Are These People? Gilded Age into Eugenics: How Did It Happen?

"Isn't it odd, we always picture people the way they were... Never as they really are." — Bette Davis  If you've ever looked at history and wondered, "Who are these people?" and "What was really happening behind the scenes?" this podcast invites you to join the search for answers. Today's show, The American Experiment, explores the people, institutions, ideas, and power structures that shaped the modern world. From ancient trade routes and royal dynasties to banking networks, industrial fortunes, wars, immigration, eugenics, intelligence operations, and artificial intelligence, the show follows the historical connections that continue to influence society today. Rather than focusing only on dates and events, host Dianne Emerson asks a simple question: Who are these people? Each episode examines history, research, forgotten documents, and controversial topics through a long-form investigative lens. The American Experiment connects the Gilded Age, scientific movements, political systems, financial institutions, military power, and cultural change into a broader narrative designed for listeners who enjoy independent research and critical thinking. Whether exploring ancient Egypt, immigration, the Federal Reserve, human experimentation, technology, or modern influence networks, the goal remains the same: to understand how the systems around us were built and who built them. Music:  Chicago - Does Anybody Really Know What Time It Is? (Official Audio)   Timeline and History of Ruling Class The Jesuits Kissinger/War Criminal The Elites are Transgenders The Pilgrims Progressive Era - Wikipedia Gilded Age - Wikipedia Bank for International Settlements - Wikipedia BANKING CARTEL: Bank for International Settlements (BIS) – The Vatican's Central Bank | RIELPOLITIK The Hidden Hand that Shaped History | Vigilant Citizen The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction The Hiroshima Myth | Mises Institute Caravan To Midnight - Episode 269 David McGowan Talks Boston Marathon The Secret World Government or "The Hidden Hand": The Unrevealed in History To bring this matter more into focus from the human tragedy standpoint, I recommend the reading of a book entitled Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6, September 30, 1945, by Michiko Hachiya. He was a survivor of Hiroshima and kept a daily diary about the women, children and old men that he treated on a daily basis in the hospital. The doctor was badly injured himself but recovered enough to help others and his account of the personal tragedies of innocent civilians who were either badly burned or died as a result of the bombing puts the moral issue into a clear perspective for all of us to consider.    [PDF] [EPUB] Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6-September 30, 1945 Download The Sinking Of The Lusitania: Cover-Up, Conspiracy, Or Carelessness? The Sinking of the Lusitania | Council on Foreign Relations Did the Jews Build the Pyramids? – The Israel Bible Pyramid Research:  gorojanin_iz_b — LiveJournal New chronology (Fomenko) - Wikipedia Anatoly Fomenko - Wikipedia The Anatomy of Anatoly Fomenko | The Unexpected Cosmology NEW CHRONOLOGY. A.Fomenko, G.Nosovsky About Anatoly Civil War Research- Dave McGowan:  The Center for an Informed America | The Internet's Best Source for Disinformation-free News and Commentary!   Ernst Fraenkel | Open Library Ernst Fraenkel (political scientist) - Wikipedia America Is Watching the Rise of a Dual State - The Atlantic Ernst Fraenkel – a Jewish lawyer who resisted the Nazis | Review of Democracy Ernst Fraenkel warned of a dual state; is it coming true in America? – The Forward The Dual State - Wikipedia [PDF] The Dual State Download   Is JD Vance Leaking To The New York Times? The Wall Street Journal reported on Monday that Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump are investing in a Florida-based drone company called Powerus that "is vying to meet fresh demand from the Pentagon" for drones that started when the Trump administration banned foreign-made drones and drone components from the US in December.  Trump's Sons Accused of Trying to Profit Off Iran War With Drone Investment | Truthout New Drone Maker Partly Owned by Trump Sons Hopes to Win Pentagon Contracts Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 How they flip sex with hormones:  Ukraine is Run by TRANSGENDERS Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here - one click and pods load to any device fully titled and ready to listen to or archive:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life The American Experiment is not a conspiracy term or something hidden—it's been used openly for centuries by presidents, judges, historians, journalists, and political thinkers.  What they usually mean is:  Can a large nation govern itself through a constitutional republic without a king, hereditary aristocracy, or dictator?  At the time of the American founding, that was not considered a settled question. Most large countries were monarchies or empires. Examples include:  George Washington referred to the success of the new republic as something the world was watching.   Alexis de Tocqueville studied the United States in the 1830s as a unique democratic experiment.   Ronald Reagan frequently referred to the American experiment in freedom.   George H. W. Bush used the phrase.   Barack Obama used it.   Joe Biden has used it as well.   Historically, the conventional meaning is: "An experiment in republican self-government."  In other words, can citizens govern themselves through elections, constitutions, and institutions over long periods of time?  "If it is an experiment, then who designed it, who benefits from it, and what exactly is being tested?"  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Dutch New York Timeline 1609 Henry Hudson sails for the Dutch and explores the river that becomes the Hudson River. 1624 Dutch settlers establish the colony of New Netherland. 1625–1626 Settlement established on Manhattan. The Dutch call it: New Amsterdam 1600s–1664 New Amsterdam grows as a Dutch trading port. 1664 The English seize New Amsterdam without a major battle. They rename it: New York City after James Stuart, the Duke of York. 1674 The Dutch formally give up claims to New Netherland. What Happened to the Dutch? The Dutch did not leave. Many stayed. Families such as: Van Rensselaer Schuyler Stuyvesant Van Cortlandt Roosevelt remained wealthy and influential. Fast Forward 1700s–mid 1800s The descendants of those Dutch and early English merchant families become New York's old-money crowd. 1870s–1900 Gilded Age fortunes appear: Vanderbilt Rockefeller Morgan Carnegie Harriman 1880s–1920s Old families and new industrial fortunes increasingly intermarry. New York started as Dutch New Amsterdam, became English New York in 1664, the Dutch elite largely stayed put, and over the next 250 years their descendants gradually merged with the railroad, oil, steel, and banking fortunes of the Gilded Age. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> (1609–1626), the ancestors of today's Roma (Gypsies) were already living in many parts of Europe. By the early 1600s, Roma populations could be found in: Spain Portugal France England Scotland German states of the Holy Roman Empire Italy The Low Countries (modern Netherlands and Belgium) Hungary Poland The Balkans Ottoman territories For the Dutch specifically, Roma had been present in the Low Countries since at least the 1400s and 1500s. By the time the Dutch founded New Netherland, Roma communities were already known in Dutch territory, although they often faced restrictions, expulsions, or anti-vagrancy laws. As for New Amsterdam itself, there is very little evidence that Roma were among the first Dutch settlers who established the colony in the 1620s. The early population was mainly: Dutch settlers Walloons (French-speaking Protestants from present-day Belgium) Germans Scandinavians Africans (many brought through Dutch slavery) Some Sephardic Jews later in the 1600s If any Roma individuals arrived in New Netherland during the Dutch period, they were not present in large enough numbers to leave a clear historical record. A rough snapshot would look like this: 1609–1626 Netherlands Roma already present in Europe for roughly 200 years. Often marginalized and subject to restrictions. New Netherland / New Amsterdam Primarily Dutch, Walloon, German, Scandinavian, and African populations. No significant documented Roma community. The Roma migration into Europe had largely occurred much earlier: So when Henry Hudson was exploring the Hudson River in 1609, Roma communities were already scattered across much of Europe, but they were not a major part of the early Dutch colonial population in New Amsterdam. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> John Jacob Astor (1763–1848) Born in Germany, John Jacob Astor immigrated to the United States after the American Revolution. He built an enormous fortune through the fur trade, real estate, and international commerce. By the early 1800s, he had become one of the wealthiest men in America and established the foundation of what became the Astor family fortune. William Backhouse Astor Sr. (1792–1875) The fortune then passed to his son, William Backhouse Astor Sr. Rather than creating a new business empire, he expanded and carefully managed the wealth his father had accumulated. Under his leadership, the family's New York real estate holdings grew substantially, increasing the family's influence and wealth. William Backhouse Astor Jr. (1829–1892) William Backhouse Astor Jr. inherited much of the family's wealth and continued to oversee the Astor real estate empire. During the Gilded Age, the Astor's became one of the most powerful and socially prominent families in New York City. The family's name became synonymous with wealth, privilege, and high society. John Jacob Astor IV (1864–1912) A great-grandson of the original John Jacob Astor, John Jacob Astor IV inherited a portion of the vast family fortune. He became a businessman, inventor, real estate developer, and author. He helped develop several landmark New York properties, including the original Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. His life ended when he died aboard the RMS Titanic during its maiden voyage in 1912. In simple terms, the Astor fortune was created by John Jacob Astor, preserved and expanded by his son William Backhouse Astor Sr., strengthened during the Gilded Age by William Backhouse Astor Jr., and carried into the twentieth century by John Jacob Astor IV. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1492 Christopher Columbus reaches the Americas while sailing for Spain. His voyages open sustained European exploration, colonization, trade, and competition in the Western Hemisphere. 1609 Henry Hudson, sailing for the Dutch, explores the river that becomes known as the Hudson River. 1624 Dutch settlers establish the colony of New Netherland. 1625–1626 A settlement is established on Manhattan Island. The Dutch call it: New Amsterdam 1600s–1664 New Amsterdam grows as a Dutch trading port and commercial center. 1664 The English seize New Amsterdam without a major battle. They rename it: New York after James Stuart, the Duke of York, who later becomes King James II of England. 1674 The Dutch formally give up claims to New Netherland. What Happened to the Dutch? The Dutch did not leave. Many stayed. Families such as: Van Rensselaer Schuyler Stuyvesant Van Cortlandt Roosevelt remained wealthy and influential. The colony changed hands. The city changed names. Many of the leading families remained. Dutch New Amsterdam became English New York. English New York became British New York. British New York became American New York. Throughout these changes, many of the same families continued to own land, conduct business, and hold influence. 1700s–Mid-1800s The descendants of Dutch and early English merchant families become New York's old-money elite. Their wealth comes from: Land ownership Shipping Trade Banking Real estate 1870s–1900 The Gilded Age arrives. New industrial fortunes emerge: Vanderbilt Rockefeller Morgan Carnegie Harriman These fortunes are built from: Railroads Oil Steel Finance Large-scale industry 1880s–1920s The old New York families and the new industrial fortunes increasingly intermarry. Business relationships expand. Social clubs overlap. Universities, foundations, and financial interests become intertwined. Over time, the distinction between old money and new money begins to fade. New York began as the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, became English New York in 1664, the Dutch elite largely remained in place, and over the next 250 years their descendants gradually merged with the railroad, oil, steel, and banking fortunes of the Gilded Age. Much of the old-money and new-money elite came out of the same North Atlantic commercial world centered around the Netherlands, Britain, and adjacent German-speaking regions. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-19" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-19" data-testid= "conversation-turn-40" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Family Generally Associated Origin Modern Country Astor German (born in Waldorf, Baden) Germany Schuyler Dutch Netherlands Van Rensselaer Dutch Netherlands Stuyvesant Dutch Netherlands Van Cortlandt Dutch Netherlands Roosevelt Dutch Netherlands Livingston Scottish United Kingdom De Lancey French Huguenot France Goelet French Huguenot (via Netherlands) France Rhinelander German Germany   Old New York / Pre-Gilded Age Crowd Most roots trace to: Netherlands England Scotland France (Huguenots) Germany These families generally arrived between the 1600s and early 1800s. Gilded Age / New Money Crowd Family Generally Associated Origin Modern Country Vanderbilt Dutch Netherlands Rockefeller German Germany Carnegie Scottish United Kingdom Morgan Welsh / English United Kingdom Harriman English United Kingdom Gould English United Kingdom Mellon Scottish-Irish United Kingdom Duke English United Kingdom Flagler English United Kingdom The surprise is that the "new money" crowd wasn't arriving from some entirely different part of the world. Many were still from the same North Atlantic population stream: Dutch English Scottish Welsh German French Protestant The difference was less where they came from and more how they made their money. Old New York Money Dutch merchants Colonial landowners Shipping Banking Real estate Main origins: Netherlands England Scotland France Gilded Age Money Railroads Oil Steel Finance Industry Main origins: Netherlands England Scotland Germany Wales Vanderbilts—often viewed as the classic "new money" family—were actually Dutch in origin, just like many of the old New York families. They were not outsiders geographically; they were outsiders because their fortune exploded to a scale that challenged the existing social hierarchy. That's one reason the line between "old money" and "new money" becomes blurry when you look closely at the family origins. Late 1500s Robert Browne advocates separation from the Church of England. Early 1600s Many Separatists leave England for the more tolerant Dutch Republic. Cities such as: Amsterdam Leiden become refuges. 1620 One group leaves Leiden aboard the Mayflower and establishes Plymouth Colony. What About Those Who Stayed? This is where your observation gets interesting. Not everyone left. Many English, Dutch, merchant, banking, and religious communities remained in the Netherlands. The Dutch Republic continued to be one of the great commercial and financial centers of Europe throughout the 1600s. So you have several overlapping streams: English Separatists who eventually become Pilgrims. Dutch merchant families. English merchants operating in Dutch cities. French Huguenot refugees. German merchants. International banking and trading networks. Over the next two centuries these populations intermingle in various ways. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 70 AD — Destruction of the Second Temple The Romans destroy the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Jewish communities already exist throughout the Roman world and continue to expand across the Mediterranean. Many Jews live in: Judea Italy North Africa Asia Minor 200–500 AD — Jewish Communities Established in Roman Italy Jewish communities are well documented in Rome and other Italian cities. Some historians believe a portion of the ancestors of later Ashkenazi Jews lived in Italy during this period. 800–900 AD — Jewish Communities Appear in the Rhineland Jewish settlements become established in the Rhineland region of what is now western Germany. Major centers include: Mainz Worms Speyer These communities become important centers of Jewish learning, trade, and religious scholarship. 900–1100 AD — The Name "Ashkenaz" Becomes Associated with German Lands In Jewish tradition, the biblical figure Ashkenaz appears in Genesis. During the early medieval period, Jewish scholars began using the name Ashkenaz to refer to German lands. Jews living in German-speaking regions became known as Ashkenazi Jews. Their customs became known as Ashkenazi traditions. Their language eventually developed into Yiddish, combining German dialects with Hebrew and other influences. 962 AD — Holy Roman Empire Begins  Otto I Holy Roman Empire Otto I was crowned emperor by the Pope. Most historians use this date as the true beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, the Bishop of Rome. At that time, the Church was what historians usually call the Western Christian Church or the Latin Church. The formal split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church had not yet occurred. 962 AD, Pope John XII was the Pope of the unified Western Church. Modern historians often say "Catholic Pope" because the office later became the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Strictly speaking, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches had not yet formally separated. This empire was centered on German-speaking lands but included parts of: Germany Austria Switzerland Czech lands Northern Italy Low Countries For centuries it became the dominant political structure in Central Europe. The Rhineland Jewish communities developed within territories that became part of the Holy Roman Empire. Most historical and linguistic evidence suggests Roma ancestors were still moving westward from the Indian subcontinent through Persia, Armenia, and the Byzantine world. 1000–1100 AD — Major Ashkenazi Centers Flourish The cities of: Mainz Worms Speyer become leading centers of Ashkenazi religious and cultural life. Many foundations of Ashkenazi law, custom, and scholarship are established during this period. 1000–1200 AD — Roma Appear in Historical Records  The earliest historical references associated with Roma populations begin appearing in Byzantine territories and southeastern Europe during this general period. 1020–1030 AD — Habsburg Castle Built The Habsburg family built its ancestral castle in what is now Switzerland. At roughly this time, there is no evidence that Roma populations had yet reached Switzerland. 1054 AD — Great Schism  The churches centered in Rome and Constantinople formally split into what later became known as: Roman Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church The Pope who crowned Otto I in 962 AD belonged to the unified Western Church that existed before this formal separation. 1096 AD — First Crusade  Crusader armies attack numerous Jewish communities in the Rhineland. Massacres occur in: Mainz Worms Speyer These events become a major turning point in Ashkenazi history. 1100–1500 AD — Migration into Eastern Europe Many Ashkenazi Jews gradually migrate eastward. Large communities develop in: Poland Lithuania Bohemia Hungary Later Ukraine and Belarus 1200–1300 AD — Roma Likely Present in Northern Italy  While exact dates remain uncertain, many historians believe Roma groups had reached parts of Italy by the 1200s or early 1300s through migration routes from the Balkans and Byzantine territories. 1400–1450 AD — Roma Documented in Switzerland  Historical records begin showing Roma groups in Switzerland during the 15th century. By this period, Roma communities were appearing across much of Central Europe, including areas controlled by the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburg family and castle were established roughly 400 years before Roma populations are clearly documented in Switzerland. The first clear Swiss records appear during the 1400s, though some historians note that mobile populations may have been present earlier without surviving written documentation. 1500–1800 AD — Eastern Europe Becomes the Center of Ashkenazi Life The largest Ashkenazi populations are now located in Eastern Europe rather than Germany. Yiddish culture expands across the region. The term "Ashkenazi" is tied to Jewish communities in the German-speaking lands roughly around 900–1100 AD, but the ancestors of those communities were present in Europe centuries earlier, especially in Italy and along the Rhine. Written records show when chroniclers noticed and recorded them, but mobile populations may have been present earlier without leaving surviving documentation. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:5e49b221-98af-466d-bcff-07c2640bbaa3-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:5e49b221-98af-466d-bcff-07c2640bbaa3-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 962 AD — Holy Roman Empire Begins Otto I Holy Roman Empire Otto I was crowned emperor by the Pope. Most historians use this date as the true beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto I was crowned emperor in 962 AD by Pope John XII, the Bishop of Rome. At that time, the Church was what historians usually call the Western Christian Church or the Latin Church. The formal split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church had not yet occurred. In 962 AD, Pope John XII was the Pope of the unified Western Church. Modern historians often say "Catholic Pope" because the office later became the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Strictly speaking, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches had not yet formally separated. This empire was centered on German-speaking lands but included parts of: Germany Austria Switzerland Czech lands Northern Italy Low Countries For centuries it became the dominant political structure in Central Europe. Roma Context At the time of Otto I's coronation in 962 AD, there is no evidence that Roma populations had yet reached Central Europe. Most historical and linguistic evidence suggests Roma ancestors were still moving westward from the Indian subcontinent through Persia, Armenia, and the Byzantine world. c. 1000–1200 AD — Roma Appear in Historical Records The earliest historical references associated with Roma populations begin appearing in Byzantine territories and southeastern Europe during this general period. c. 1020–1030 AD — Habsburg Castle Built The Habsburg family built its ancestral castle in what is now Switzerland. At roughly this time, there is no evidence that Roma populations had yet reached Switzerland. 1054 AD — Great Schism The churches centered in Rome and Constantinople formally split into what later became known as: Roman Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church The Pope who crowned Otto I in 962 AD belonged to the unified Western Church that existed before this formal separation. c. 1200–1300 AD — Roma Likely Present in Northern Italy While exact dates remain uncertain, many historians believe Roma groups had reached parts of Italy by the 1200s or early 1300s through migration routes from the Balkans and Byzantine territories. c. 1400–1450 AD — Roma Documented in Switzerland Historical records begin showing Roma groups in Switzerland during the 15th century. By this period, Roma communities were appearing across much of Central Europe, including areas controlled by the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. Thus, the Habsburg family and castle were established roughly 400 years before Roma populations are clearly documented in Switzerland. The first clear Swiss records appear several centuries later, during the 1400s, though some historians note that mobile populations may have been present earlier without surviving written documentation. Ancient Egypt Timeline Before Egypt c. 10,000–5000 BC Hunter-gatherers live along the Nile. Gradual development of farming communities. c. 5000–3100 BC Villages grow into regional kingdoms. Trade develops along the Nile.   Egypt Becomes a Kingdom c. 3100 BC Upper and Lower Egypt Unified Traditionally associated with Narmer (sometimes called Menes). Egypt becomes one of the world's first large unified states. Pyramid Age c. 2686–2181 BC Old Kingdom Often called the "Age of the Pyramids." c. 2630 BC Step Pyramid Built Built for Pharaoh Djoser. Generally considered Egypt's first major pyramid.     c. 2580–2560 BC Great Pyramid of Giza Built Built for Pharaoh Khufu. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. c. 2558–2532 BC Pyramid of Khafre c. 2510 BC Pyramid of Menkaure These three pyramids form the famous Giza complex. c. 2500 BC Great Sphinx Constructed Likely built during the reign of Khafre. Middle Kingdom c. 2055–1650 BC Egypt reunifies after a period of instability. Expansion of trade and government. New Kingdom — Egypt's Empire c. 1550–1070 BC Egypt reaches the height of its power. Major rulers include: Hatshepsut Akhenaten Tutankhamun Ramesses II c. 1332–1323 BC King Tut Reigns 1279–1213 BC Ramesses II Reigns One of Egypt's most famous pharaohs. Foreign Conquests Begin 525 BC Persian Conquest Egypt conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. Greeks Arrive 332 BC Alexander the Great Conquers Egypt Alexander the Great enters Egypt. Founded the city of Alexandria. 305–30 BC Ptolemaic Dynasty Greek rulers govern Egypt. Cleopatra 69 BC Birth of Cleopatra 51–30 BC Reign of Cleopatra VII Last major ruler of ancient Egypt. 30 BC Egypt Becomes Roman After Cleopatra's death, Egypt is absorbed into the Roman Empire. Christianity 1st–4th Centuries AD Christianity spreads throughout Egypt. Alexandria becomes one of the most important centers of Christian scholarship. Islamic Egypt 641 AD Arab Conquest Egypt becomes part of the early Islamic world. Arabic gradually replaces earlier languages. Islam becomes the dominant religion. Ottoman Egypt 1517 AD Ottoman Empire Takes Egypt Egypt becomes part of the Ottoman Empire. Modern Egypt 1798 Napoleon Invades Egypt Europe's fascination with ancient Egypt explodes. 1869 Suez Canal Opens Egypt becomes one of the most strategically important locations on Earth. 1882 British Occupation Begins 1922 Formal Egyptian Independence 1952 Egyptian Revolution Monarchy ends. Egypt keeps showing up in history. It wasn't just another kingdom—it was one of the oldest and longest-lasting civilizations on Earth, sitting at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and the Mediterranean. Egyptian Nightmare 8. Completion of the pyramids in the paintings of old masters with Egyptian subjects In a large review of the evidence about the pyramids of Giza , we found out that until the beginning of the 19th century, not a single witness, traveler, scientist, cartographer, Egyptologist, even living in Cairo for months, showed the Great Pyramids in such a number and location, size and shape that correspond to the real ones. Although from anywhere in old Cairo and, of course, from the Nile, the Great Pyramids, their number, location, shape are visible as in a showcase. There can be only one reason for this: before the above-mentioned period, these and such pyramids did not yet exist, but they were thrown into the mass consciousness on a large scale through literature and science. In a large survey of ancient and medieval sources of ten posts, starting with this , we found out that the first real elements of the Great Pyramid appeared only in the 16th century. It first calculated its real form in 1798-1801 and published in 1822 by the Napoleonic Commission. It was first photographed and opened to the public in 1839. The pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure were completed in the period between the work of the Commission and Giza and 1839. Well, until the pyramids were ready, they were thrown in, and not only in written sources. Today we will consider the most interesting event of the XVI-XVIII centuries - the painting of pyramids in the paintings of old masters of all major European trends on biblical themes with Egyptian subjects. Admiring. This is a canvas by Domenico Domenieri (1581-1641), a prominent representative of the Bolognese school in the Baroque era, the mentor of Poussin and Lorrain, the predecessor of classicism. "Landscape with the Flight into Egypt". It was written around 1605. And in the landscape there is a strange and funny detail - pyramids, through which the details of the landscape shine through. It is clear that this was not done by the author. The hand of a master simply cannot do such an outrage, and compositionally the pyramids are generally superfluous here. They were slapped on the picture by a not very skillful painter. Another version of this painting by Domenichino, perhaps lost or simply not exhibited online, inspired by the English engraver William Byrne (1743–1805) in 1766, who innocently depicted the painted pyramid. Thank you for this mudraya-ptica find. The pyramid there is like the fifth wheel in a cart, drawn with childish mistakes that the master could not make. The top is incorrectly attached, the draftsman simply forgot about the lower part. In the painting, the pyramid must have been stumbled on top of the trees, and the branches show through its facet. The engraver copied this too. * The first examples of this kind were suggested by   blogger nezvanov - thanks to him! A small study confirmed that there was a whole campaign to dot pyramids into the paintings of old masters with Egyptian subjects. A prominent representative of Romanism, a Dutch painter and architect of the Renaissance, a student of Dürer, Jan van Scorel (1495-1562). "Madonna and Child", 1530-1531. * Frolicking from the heart Niccolò dell'Abbate (1512-1571), painted around 1560. Some of the pyramids were stylized as roofs, some were glued just like that. Very hard work! * French artist, one of the founders of classicism painting Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). Painting "The Return of the Holy Family from Egypt" 1629-1630. An obelisk and a pyramid were drawn. The sky not only shines through the pyramid, but even the texture of the master's brushstroke is visible. The stripes that appeared, with which the author marked the sky, were divided by the painter on the pyramid with thin pencil lines so that they did not show too much. "The Finding of Moses." 1651.   The pyramids are transparent. On another work by Poussin in 1638 with the same plot and title, the co-author wrote a ridiculous pyramid, for some unknown reason blocking the road going across the bridge, conscientiously reproduced its reflection in the water, but made a childish mistake. All reflections of objects and figures are as illuminated and shadowed as objects and figures, and only the reflection of the pyramid is completely in shadow, although its left face is illuminated.    Another work by Poussin with the same plot and title. The landscape and buildings shine through again, the second pyramid is written illiterately, apparently, Poussin's uninvited co-author tried to depict a shadow on the face of the pyramid, but made a mistake with the shape. In another version of this 1624 painting by Poussin, the co-author avoided transparency, but made other mistakes. The edges of the first pyramid turned out to be not depressed, but convex, like a mussel. The second pyramid demonstrates a complete inconsistency in drawing the lighting of the faces - the pyramid simply does not have them. Another mockery of Poussin and his "Moses Rescued from the Waters" of 1647.   Two pyramids were slapped in the middle ground, one, transparent, in the background. The two pyramids are oriented to the cardinal points in the same way, the sides facing the viewer are parallel. They should look like this to an observer standing on the line between the pyramids. The draftsman is familiar with the basics of three-dimensional geometry. But he is not friends with elementary logic. Why is the side of one pyramid facing the viewer illuminated, while the other is in shadow? * The French master, a follower of the classicism of Poussin, the elder of the French Academy of Painting and Sculpture, who painted Notre-Dame de Paris, Sébastien Bourdon (1616-1671), can be said to have been spared by the drawers. They did not become uro" The Finding of Moses" of 1655-60 with epic nonsense, modestly glued a bunch of crooked pyramids into the cityscape. If you don't look closely,You won't see it. The same cannot be said about the next author - a follower of Poussin. * The French successor of Poussin's classicism, who enjoyed great popularity during his lifetime, Nicolas Colombel (1644–1717), painted four paintings with one subject, "The Finding of Moses". On this canvas, the co-author conscientiously smeared the pyramids, nothing shines through. But why are they blue? All the buildings of the urban landscape are of a different color, only the mountains in the background can be blue. There is a gross violation of the law of tonal perspective, discovered and developed by Renaissance painters - it is shown in more detail on the example of Pompeian frescoes . And this violation of one of the canons of Renaissance painting suggests that the author of the pyramids in the picture is not a professional artist at all and is not well acquainted with painting.  And why is the line facing us shaded? The sun is behind the artist's back on the left, the figures and buildings are illuminated by a larger area on the left, on the right they are slightly shaded. The edge facing us must be in the sun. Look at the shadow of the girl's chin on her neck - it shows the direction of the light source, and it must illuminate both shaded faces on the inscribed pyramids. A very ignorant co-author complemented this picture. The second picture shows the same, but even more gross mistake. All the figures and buildings are brightly lit on the left, and only the inscribed pyramid has both visible faces in shadow. *   The pyramid was added to the painting of the Toulouse Cathedral of St. Joseph "The Triumph of Joseph" in 1657 by the French painter, poet, translator Hilaire Pader (1607-1677). The pyramid covered the clouds that appeared in relief on the addition, they tried to imitate them with some glare on the pyramid. And most importantly, look at the lower right edge of the pyramid. The imitator could not even draw the line of the pyramid's edge, forgot to paint over the right shadowed face under the horse's plume and trace the hand that he came across to restore, but it would be better not to do this.  I also draw attention to the unknown thing on the obelisk, ie to the lack of concepts of ancient Egyptian writing. She wasn't ready yet. For the first time, normal Egyptian writing and stylistics would be depicted by Frederick Norden 80 years later ... * And for this drawing we should praise the unknown drawer. A small, ridiculous green pyramid in the form of a round cone almost merges with the trees and practically does not spoil the landscape. Very carefully co-author aboutA painting by the master, Baroque painter from Lorraine,the leading landscape painter of Italy Claude Lorrai (1600-1682) "Landscape with Rest during the Flight to Egypt (Noon)" of 1666. He thought that there were enough antiquities in the landscape, there was no need to sculpt another one, and stylized the pyramid as the crown of a tree. Without any sarcasm: everyone would like this! * The painters made a monumental mockery of two paintings with a mirrored exposition "The Finding of Moses" by the French painter and engraver of the Regency style, the famous master of French book illustration Antoine Coypel (Antoine Coypel, 1661-1722). A pyramid was slapped into the background, something symbiotic between Pompey's Column with the Alexandria Lighthouse, and an obelisk. In the painting of 1695-97, the building on which it was slapped openly shines through the pyramid, through the symbiote - the blue of the celestial background, through the obelisk - the earth, clouds and the gap between the clouds. In the painting of about 1699, nothing shines through, but the painter has so handily inscribed the completed objects in the background that you want to tear off his hands and put them in the proper place, because they grow from the wrong place. Look at how a master, painter, engraver, outstanding illustrator inscribes the outline of objects, and how he smudges his additional objects on the background of the sky, at the same time climbing into the trees of the near ground with this background. * Italian painter and engraver of the Roman school, representative of the High Baroque Pier Francesco Mola (1612-1666). Three works with a single subject, painted around 1640. "Rest of the Holy Family on the Way to Egypt". Everything is clear with this outrage. Here this non-pyramid of ridiculous color is simply superfluous in every sense. In another version of this painting, the landscape shines through the absurdity. And here, it seems, another, large pyramid has been sketched. But the spotter did not finish it, one was enough for the customer. In the painting of the last quarter of the 17th century "The Finding of Moses" by the greatest artist of the Neapolitan school, a representative of the Italian Baroque Francesco Solimena (Francesco Solimena, 1657-1747), a pyramid was slapped not only transparent, but also with a sinuous tail. * The German painter of the Baroque school Johann Heiss (1640–1704), happily escaped a very serious mutilation of the painting "The Finding of Moses" 1696. Yes, according to custom, the painting received two transparent pyramids. But if you look closely, you will see that a huge third was sketched, the illuminated face of which remained in the form of an absurd ray coming out of the depths of glowy clouds on two figures that are in no way connected with the plot. Apparently, a sense of proportion broke through in the customer, and he stopped the absurdity, advising to make two small ones instead of a huge pyramid. And the performer disguised the edge as a beam, inscribing two tiny, brightly lit figures of who knows what. * The Dutch painter Adriaen (1659-1722) painted two paintings, A pyramid was inserted into the painting of 1697. In the painting of 1701 - no. Two pyramids were painted in the painting At first glance, there are no special mistakes, except for one: the pyramid in this place of the landscape is like a saddle on a cow. But if we look closer, we will find that the pyramid absurdly hangs in the air, starting from the line of the arch span of the bridge. The draftsman began to draw it from the line, but at the end of the work he forgot to connect it to the bottom. Or maybe the customer did not notice that the span line had not yet been painted over, and said: enough! Haste is felt in many drawings. But you can also feel the enthusiasm.   They were carried away by the work of Van der Werff and wedged a pyramid, through which the shore shines through, into the painting of 1696, which has nothing to do with Egyptian subjects. * The French representative of classicism, Charles (1636-1716), was slapped with a transparent obelisk and a pyramid in his of 1701. Moreover, the pyramid, judging by the grossly inept border of the crown of the tree, was made together with a piece of sky and a background, painting over the right part of the crown. The remains of the crown are still visible on the pyramid. * Italian painter of the Venetian school (1659-1734). 1711. No words. * French painter and engraver, one of the best landscape painters of the 17th century, Allegrain (1644-1736). The last quarter of the 17th century. Not only the lawn and the pedestal shine through, but also the walking figure.    Trying to disguise his disability, the secret co-author of the master of landscape Ista slapped into the ancient landscape absolutely ridiculous chimneys and smoke from one of them. * Nothing better than smearing a crooked pyramid over the details of the background and not even painting it over was invented by an uninvited draughtsman in the painting of 1737 by the court painter of the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, the Italian artist (1657-1745).* The painting of the founder of the English school of painting, (1697-1764) of 1746, was painted with two pyramids in the background and one in the middle, but they forgot to continue its edge. As a result, the pyramid hung in the air. And it was the help of engraver (1730-1771). Admire it.    First, the engraver mirrored the painting. Secondly, I removed one of the transparent pyramids, made the second one normally shaded. And most importantly, he worked on the main supervision: he narrowed the pyramid, moved it away from the parapet deep into the roof, let fire and smoke into exactly the place where the edge of the pyramid should appear after editing, ie covered it. Compare. * A sense of proportion preserved from great sabotage the painting of the Roman painter, the forerunner of neoclassicism, (1684–1764). An unsightly transparent pyramid almost does not spoil the landscape of the canvas of 1750. * The Italian Rococo and Neoclassical master (1702-1788) painted in 1768, which was repeated in a mirror version by the landscape painter and engraver , 1742–1788) and immortalized as by the engraver (1745–1799) in 1786.    From these dates follows a fairly accurate period of editing the picture in the form of drawing stupid transparent pyramids right in the floodplain of the Nile. This happened between 1768 and 1786. * Antonio Paroli 1688–1768), a Venetian painter from Gorizia, Slovenia, whose painting not only slapped a colorful, ugly pyramid that overshadows everything else, including the central figures of the plot, but also made it just as ugly illiterate, obscuring it from the side facing us, which is brightly illuminated on all other objects, buildings, figures of the picture. * The proofreader of the painting of the Spanish painter, engraver, illustrator, academician of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando (1757-1818) boldly began to draw the pyramid in front of the buildings in the background.   But he stopped when he saw the absurdity of the pyramid in its finished form, and left the detail in ridiculous uncertainty. * Another very late drawing, indicating that the pyramid planting event is not a one-time event. A French master of neoclassicism, who lived and worked in Italy, (1762-1801). 1792. Not only the landscape shines through here. There is a gross error with illumination. Pyramids cannot be illuminated in such different ways, as well as located in principle. In general, they are oriented with facets uniformly to the cardinal points.*Smile. Almost at random, he opened art auction sites selling old paintings by unknown artists. The mistakes of the draftsmen here are even more stupid than in the paintings of famous masters. by an unknown author, . It can be seen that at first the painter drew a small pyramid flush with the turret next to it, then he dared and drew the pyramid larger.   I was glad that I successfully inscribed it in the direction of the index finger of one of the heroines of the picture. In my joy, I forgot to finish the reflection, so it is not the pyramid that is reflected in the Nile at all, but the building on top of which the pyramid was slapped on. Perhaps because of this stupid mistake, art historians do not dare to determine whether the painting belongs to some great master of the Italian school of the 18th century. Well by a painter is simply illiterately supplemented. In a painting with a bright light, color, contrasting antithesis of the dark earth and the bright sky (with the transparent idea that the child came to this dark, predatory land as a messenger of heaven), the painter painted the earthly landscape with a pyramid in the tones of the sky. *   In the Egyptian plots of the old masters, there are illiterately inserted feastsAmides for every taste - with erroneous color schemes, with compositional flaws, and transparent pyramids - this is a song! What does the painting of pyramids in old paintings by unknown artists mean? About the same thing that is evidenced by the drawings of outstanding masters - about a broad and purposeful campaign. Almost all pyramids inserted in paintings and books, as a rule, differ greatly in shape from the real ones, copying in variations in Rome. Which means that no one has seen other examples of pyramids yet.    The time of the correction of the paintings directly follows from the dates of their creation - the beginning of the 18th century, although some recurrences of the throw-in campaign were carried out until the end of the century. Accordingly, it follows from this that before this boundary there were no pyramids, they were still being made. It should also be said that most of the Egyptian paintings of the old masters remained without pyramids, ie the throwing was made only by individual owners of galleries and paintings. Why did the pyramids wedge into the Egyptian paintings of the old masters? The stump is clear to fix in the brains of contemporaries that Egypt is a country of pyramids, and that they have always been in paintings and in Egypt. This is how history is made. Mind and health. The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction Apparently, the first photograph of the Sphinx, although the photographers C. & G. Zangaki and the years of shooting 1880-1900 are indicated. But the Sphinx was certainly taken earlier. Photographers took pictures of Egypt in the 1860s-1890s, but in many photos of the 1850-60s the condition of the Sphinx in its rear part is much "newer", the back part has been restored that this EARLIEST photo of the Sphinx was taken in the 1850s. The stele of Thutmose IV is not in place, there is only the upper part. It has just been brought. After that, the photo will be placed in its final place and given its final appearance. The back of the Sphinx, one of the four pedestals of construction debris and defective blocks, had not even been connected to the rest into a single torso. In 1867, this supposedly natural rock continued to be supplemented with a hardening mixture, bricks and debris. In 1870, it continued to be built up with the same trash. The stele in nature in all the following photos has become like this. This is how the construction on Giza ended. * Confirmation that by 1802 the objects of Giza - the pyramids and the Sphinx, had not yet been completed, has already been seen for two centuries. And they were left by none other than Dominique Vivant, with the title of Baron Denon (1747-1825). He participated in Napoleon's Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801; he published A Journey through Lower and Upper Egypt (1802). In 1802 he was appointed director general of the museums of France: the Central Museum of Art of the Republic (now the Louvre), Versailles, the Mint and the Medal Mint, and others. The Great Forgery of the Great Pyramids in Denon's Egyptian Albums Strange as it may seem, the most outstanding place in Egypt, Giza with the Great Pyramids and the Sphinx, is devoted to only two and a half pages. The scientist neglected the wonder of the world. In , you can leaf through his book. Pages. The pyramids are hastily sketched. So will a scientist who has come to acquaint the world with Egypt draw the greatest building in the world? No. The perspective of the Great Pyramids is not without difficulty. From left to right - Menkaure, Chephren, Cheops. But Khafre, who is taller than Cheops, does not have a cap, two of the three pyramids of the Queens have not yet been built. And the Nile is not here, and never was, it is east of Giza. For understanding. The engraver's gaze is directed to the north, he himself is south of the Great Pyramids. The Nile is far to the east, flowing parallel to the direction of view. This is exactly a sketch, a performance, nothing more. The author did not see the Pyramids of Giza where and how they are now, did not know that Khafre would be decorated with a hat.  But the plan of the tunnel and burial chambers is already there. This means that they were ready, but the sand had not yet been poured, the blocks formed on the spot were not lined. The entrance to the Pyramid of Cheops is drawn from life. Its height is 15.6 m. Next to it is a photo from 1867. Now the angle of this drawing is impossible. It can only be obtained by hanging in the air. As the observer approaches a tall object, his proportions change: the lower part increases relative to the upper one. You can also show the height of Denon's eyes in comparison with a modern drone shot. The drone was a little to the left and further, but there was no better angle. In Denon's time, there were no photographs and drones. The artist could only stand on the construction ground. Sketch of 1803-04 by Johann Adam Bergk (1769-1834). The same point of the artist, now hanging in the air. Knowing that the picture was impossible, the publisher mirrored it. * The picture with the Sphinx is the only one in Denon. Photos of the head from the north before 1931, when it was seriously changed during reconstruction, were rarely taken. There are two photos of an inaccurate angle of 1900 and 1906 and the most correct angle in the photo of the 1920s: ,2, . Under the shooting point of the last photo, the eastern necropolis of Giza, has been excavated and receives tourists. The hill is dug up. The tomb was discovered by archaeologist George Reisner on April 23, 1927. After that, it is impossible to take a photo of the Sphinx from this shooting point. And it makes no sense after the restoration of 1931, when the head of the Sphinx was significantly changed, the mane was added, the upper left part of the head was completed, etc. He had a sketch. The same as the builders. For the founder of the Louvre, who saw the unfinished objects of Egypt and dragged masterpieces from all over Europe, this is not surprising. But the builders seriously moved away from it, especially with the tilt and back of the head.Look at the upper part of the head. It is intact, although it became so only in 1931. And - smile. How the Sphinx was seen by contemporaries of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. A drawing from 1799 where he personifies France (in one version), a force that dominates science (in another version). Did the French even see the Sphinx? * There is an in the album with allegedly Giza. Even in Google, you can't turn a 3D picture inside out to make it look like this. Pure creativity that cannot belong to a person who has seen the pyramids of Giza. This drawing in the book "Description of Egypt" of 1810 is another evidence of drawing from sketches and fantasies. The pyramids under Denon were still in the stage of heaps of soil. Khafren without a hat (the author did not know that it would be), the angle is impossible. The maximum that can be seen from the south side of the Sphinx is Cheops and Khafre, but not in profile of the Sphinx, as in the picture, but in semi-full face, from the southeast. To make it clear where everything is: Menkaure, Chephren and Cheops in a row, as in the picture, are possible only when viewed from the east, relative to the Sphinx - strictly full-face. * Let us recall the image of the Great Pyramid of Pushkin after communication with the Egyptologist Gulyanov and his notes-sketches in 1831. The poet sketched it in a near-finished, but still Roman form; No one has seen any other pyramids. Estimate the speed of construction from the height of the entrance in 1798 to the base of the summit in 1831. *And the most interesting thing. At the end of the Heidelberg edition, the author, having drawn all the objects, returns to Giza and supplements the album with two pages with a plan of the Great Pyramids and a view from the northeast - now of normal proportions and location, only without the cap of Chephren, and Cheops is covered at the entrance; see here Go to NYPL. In there are no such pages. Sound familiar, right? Some instances do not know anything about objects, and there is an instance with an object. We saw this trick. Before the construction of Stonehenge, there was an identical stuffing, so in the Diderot-d'Alembert encyclopedia there are copies of volume 15 with and without Stonehenge. And the ancient images of Stonehenge bear as little resemblance to the original as the images of the Great Pyramids. Denon's work is valuable because it recorded the monuments of Egypt made by the creators of history by the end of the 18th century. The facilities on Giza were not among them. They were completed before the era of photography. Abu Simbell will be completed 10 years after the Giza, and the . The formwork soil of history's builders in the first photo of the Great Pyramid The first photograph of the Great Pyramid has been found. An 1842 aquatint from an 1839 daguerreotype. The sand level is closer to the top than to the base. On the sand are the vanished huts of construction workers and a waste dump. Similar settlements existed at all Egyptian monuments and continued to exist for almost a century, right up until Palmyra, whose construction settlement, Tadmor, was liquidated in the 1930s. The 1839 camera has no zoom, but rows and individual blocks, invisible even with a modern zoom, are clearly visible – up to 50 of them (the pyramid has 203 rows in total). The field of view and the angle of the pyramid also preclude any long-distance photography. The top was shot from close range. Compare with a photo from 1890. The 180-year-old photograph cannot be combined with subsequent photos; a similar perspective is only possible from a vantage point high above the ground. In the photo from the surface, both the angle of the pyramid is different and the distance to the top is greater. The edge is quite recognizable at the bottom; the higher you go, the greater the discrepancy will be, according to the laws of geometry. This is how it turned out for me. Older ones on top of less old ones. The difference in height is due to the difference in angles. The photographer in 1839 was at a height of about half a pyramid and significantly closer to the top than the photographer in 1890; this is inevitable distortion. Close-up of the edge. The bottom matches exactly. Further on, about twenty rows were higher in 1839; either they sank into the sand in the first half century, or a large batch crumbled. Further on, it overlaps quite well, although distortions increase significantly due to the difference in shooting points at a height of half a pyramid in 1839 from the construction soil and from the current level in 1890. This is construction soil. Which, ten years before the first photo, during Pushkin's lifetime, I remind you, was generally at the level of the then-readiness of the object, which did not yet have a top. When was the Great Pyramid built? The final construction of the Great Pyramids is more or less clear. And when did the construction begin? The mastaba, the core of the pyramid, dates back to the 16th century. It is described in a book of 1591 by the Venetian consul, botanist Prosper Alpini (lived in Egypt in 1580-83). But the pyramids and topography are a fantasy out of the head. To use : ... The measure of length of the step is 0.71 m and is still like this."The second he describes as being at a stone's throwing distance, or rather less, from the Great Pyramid;its sides were smooth and without any stepsto climb it... The Third Pyramid was much smaller, also closed and . He observed , but he could not describe them, because he did not examine them..."Grigorovich-Barsky traveled to the holy places in 1723-47. He left 4 volumes of notes and 137 drawings, published in 1778 on the initiative of Potemkin. The third edition of the "Journey "is here. In 1727, he lived in Cairo for 8 months. He described a lot of the buildings, streets, the bazaar, mentioned the pyramids in one phrase. Which is followed by another, obvious stupidity: built by the pharaohs to save from the floods of the Nile. From which it is clear that the current pyramids did not exist under Barsky. They are still visible from anywhere in old Cairo, it is impossible not to see them. Illustrating the book, Barsky drew a panorama of Cairo from the opposite shore and did not find a place for the pyramids. Mosques and temples towering over the city, he described in great detail, the fortress in the highest place of the city. There are no pyramids. In Alexandria, he noted on the city plan the column of Pompey and the needles of Cleopatra - the only finished monuments of Ancient Egypt in the city at that time, objects incomparably small in comparison with the pyramids. He copied ancient Egyptian writings. And he described the greatest buildings in the world in one stupid phrase, between mentions of sights - the Cairo Stock Exchange and crocodiles. These are the Pharaoh's Mountains, made to wait out the floods.  And in the odes of Lomonosov's contemporary, there are a couple of mentions of pyramids without details. In other words, in the 1760s-70s, there were pyramid mounds in the project, a subtype of mountains were made in their place, the key figures of the workshop of the creators of history knew about them and wedged them into the current documents of the era. But they had no idea about the finished objects. A few words about the background of publications. It was during these years that the monumental inscribing of the Russian history of Tatishchev-Lomonosov into the existing ancient, ie world, took place. In 1749-62, Trediakovsky published a translation of Rollin's work "Ancient History" in 10 volumes 1730-38 years of publication, a compilation of Herodotus, Pliny, Strabo... In 1763-64, the history of Herodotus, the translator of Nartov, was published. In 1774-75 - 6 volumes of Diodorus Siculus... In this completeness, the pyramids were made, at first, as usual, in literature. * In Rollin's work, translated by Trediakovsky, there are two dimensions. The first one is clear. The width of the sides and the height of 800 ft is 244 m. The real sides are 230 m, the height is 138 m. The second time Rollin and Chazelle measured the sides at 110 fathoms - this is close, 234 m; and 77 3/4 sazhens high - 166 m, this is again the pyramid of Cestius. Let's keep silent about the smallest blocks of 30 ft (9 m), copied from the "testimony of Herodotus" (about him below). * John Greaves, an English antiquarian, astronomer, mathematician, and traveler to Egypt in 1639, boldly and thoroughly showed this in his book in 1646. * Well, in the very first project, the pyramids of Memphis were built not by pharaohs, but by Jews in captivity in Egypt. This was included in the book a Lithuanian prince who allegedly inspected the pyramids of Cairo, all 17))), in 1583. We admire what the said prince . 300 cubits, the side and height of the largest pyramid is 126 m. 70-80 cubits of the third pyramid of the harlot Rhodoppa is 29-34 m. In 1635-37, the writer and merchant Vasily Gagara lived for 2 years and 3 months in Cairo, but did not see the pyramids, but passed on what he knew in the book . In literature, they were still made by Jews, while away Egyptian slavery, in description they were a free fantasy. Inthe Narrative and Journey to the Holy Places of Daniel, Metropolitan of Ephesus between 1493 and 1499, published in 1747 from a copied copy of a manuscript that the copyist did not see, the pyramids, of which there are an indefinite number, are first given to the Egyptians. Although these are still the barns of Joseph, the son of Jacob, they were tombs before that. But in the we see quite real evidence of completion, seen in 1820. The pyramids are visible anywhere in old Cairo. In 1820, in low-rise Cairo, it was possible to recognize the way only to pyramids smaller than Pushkin's in 1831.     The Sphinx is not finished - there is no mane, there is a bow, the underground passage is still in the project. The third great pyramid of Menkaure does not yet exist, it is being made, pilgrims are not taken to the .   Considerable ploThe shchadkais larger than the Pushkin one of 1831.The entranceis from the ground itself- at the same height as Denon. have survived until the era of photographs - see the full photo. The descent from the entrance and the ascent to the center of the pyramid were also in the 17th century. In the place of the King's Chamber there with a resounding echo, and the natural .The Tsar's chamber of artificial granite still had to be made on the site left for it - in the chambers made of marble of the previous project. The height of the chambers means that at that time about 70 m of the pyramid was ready. The appearance of the Great Pyramids before and after construction Mentions in written sources and subsequent construction in nature are the usual algorithm of the creators of history. Biblical Babylon and Nineveh, like Egypt, were literary images, then they were made and discovered. Stonehenge was thrown into literary sources, then made in nature. Sacsayhuaman, which bears little resemblance to the real one, completed by the beginning of the 20th century, was thrown into de la Vega's book three centuries earlier. In the same way, pyramids were pointwise mentioned and drawn before construction.Starting with the Jewish granaries on the mosaics of San Marco, allegedly from the 12th century, in which the biblical Joseph collected bread and from which he distributed. Check out . They were drawn for their time in current literature and fabricated the literature of yesteryear. Almost all of them look like the pyramid of Cestius in Rome and do not look like the real ones. this engraving. are talking about this. Admire without words! The same pyramids from Cestius became a famous sign in 1776 when writing the US Declaration of Independence and decorated the dollar in 1778. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the pyramids have been drawn into the paintings of old masters on biblical themes, and this procedure left - ! - Followers. Details of the landscape and buildings shine through the pyramids)) Tsampieri Domenichino. Landscape with Flight into Egypt. C. 1605 Sebastiano Ricci. The Finding of Moses. 1711. No words.   Not only the lawn and the pedestal shine through, but also the walking figure.   And so on.Here we are talking about other drawings. All this means that the sample, the pyramid of Cestius, was there at the beginning of these stuffing; Rome is an old object, by the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries it was already ready. The Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx were not yet ready.  This is confirmed by the map in Denon's album of 1802, where the Sphinx is painted in no one knows what else, and by the Sphinx itself in the first photo, where it is still made of stacks of defective beams and castings, not yet covered by the "restorations of the pharaohs". Battle of the pyramids. Chronicle of the completion of Giza The so-called Battle of the Pyramids on July 21, 1798, was a remarkable battle. 29 killed, 260 wounded against a 20,000-strong French army; 10,000 killed, wounded, drowned, or captured from the combined army of Mamluks, Arabs, Janissaries, and others; a captured supply train; complete rout. It was immortalized by many contemporaries, including direct participants. For example, Denon. Let's start with him. Here are such remarkable pyramids, hardly resembling those of Giza, and who knows what next to them (the nearest pyramids are Saqqara, 14 km from Giza) in the panorama! Francois Andre Vincent. The Battle of the Pyramid, 1800. Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835). Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798. Jean-Victor Vincent Adam (1801-1866). Batalie des Pyramides. Engraving by Louis Francois Couche (1782-1849) and painting by Jacques Francois Joseph Swebach (1769-1823). There are such amazing pyramids! Francois Watteau. The Battle of the Pyramids (1798-99). And even more amazing. Dirk Langendijk. Battle of the Pyramids. 1803. And so it went... Louis-Francois, Baron Lejeune. The Battle of the Pyramids. 1808. A. Hugo, France Militaire Histoire des armees françaises de terre et de mer de 1792 a 1833 Tome 1, 1835. Napoleon's famous phrase, fake of course: "Soldiers, 40 centuries of greatness look down on you from the heights of these pyramids!" This is from the book My History of France. 1919. Richard Caton Woodville the Younger. Bonaparte in Egypt, 21st July, 1798. 1911. Jacques Maurice Henri Dieudonne (1868-1916). With these and other paintings, along with the so-called Battle of the Pyramids, the pyramids entered the subconscious of the French and others. It is more difficult to show creative imagination with maps; the genre is not the same. But cartographers showed their imagination, trying to somehow rhyme their works with the famous paintings. Let's admire Denon's map. North is at the bottom left. The fortress in the northern corner is Embabeh, around which the battle was fought, and the pyramids are in the opposite upper right corner. Since Denon swapped the pyramids, which should be in reverse order relative to the Nile—Khufu-Khephren-Mycerinus—this map is nowhere to be found. It's accompanied by this historiography, which supposedly includes pyramids, but it's unclear what kind: north is at the top right. For more advanced contemporaries, this diagram is shown, with supposedly regular pyramids. But this is more of an add-on from the publisher. And in the drawing, according to the impression, the same nonsense: Menkaure is gone, Chephren is bigger than Cheops, the hat is approved, but still abstract. Construction of the Mastaba of Cheops The mastaba core is older than the pyramid and requires a separate display. Let me remind you of the current appearance. In 1646, the above-mentioned historian and antiquarian Greaves showed the beginning of the hill filling and lining it with rows of blocks molded on the spot. The Grand Gallery has not yet been built, only a corridor has been laid. For it is impossible to be in the corridor and not notice the space narrowing upwards with a height of 8.5 m, in architecture - the so-called false vault. And there is no need to make a false vault if it is not planned to fill it. The above-mentioned Lucas, following the results of the journey of 1704-07, fixed the Gallery in its current form. It was then that the built-in cast-iron brackets were erected - the equipment of the Gallery's formwork boards. Norden, who visited Giza in 1737, and Pocock, in 1738, repeated Lucas, only under Pocock it was decided to make a wall to overcome the surface instead of a manhole in the pre-chamber, but returned to the manhole project. The French orientalist Claude-Étienne Savary was on Giza in 1776, published the book in 1786, echoed by Pocock, including his ignorance of the shape of the pyramid. And only in the report of the Napoleonic Commission by 1798 the first of five unloading chambers was made. It was discovered by the English consul Davison in 1765, about which he wrote to Professor White in 1779. Both hide the letter all their lives, only with their death did the letter see the light of day in , but Egyptologists hide it to this day. Google translation: I was surprised to find that this channel, which was supposed to end here, continues quite far down the pyramid. It used to be covered with rocks and sand; they were washed away last winter by the rain that seems to have reached this part of the pyramid. Only in one case can rains wash the corridors of the central mastaba: when there is no upper part of the pyramid above it, but only an insignificant part of the sand that barely covers the corridors and chambers. What did the builders do for almost a century? The body of the pyramid was filled with soil. The real form of which none of the witnesses saw, all of them have a copy of the pyramid of Cestius. Metamorphoses of Khafre Until the end of the 18th century, witnesses did not see the hat, it was not planned. It appeared in 1790, then disappeared and returned in 1820. In all respects, it was removed from the project, but returned to the finish of construction. But the appearance of the pyramid of Menkaure with a characteristic "cut" was not changed from the sketch. In the painting and drawing by Luigi Mayer of 1790, the location of the pyramids is absurd, they are drawn separately from sketches, but the view is close to the real ones. 1820 year. The explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778-1823) knew that there would be a hat, but did not know what kind of hat it would be. I drew a conditional one. By 1822, the pyramids had established themselves in children's literature through the writings of the writer Atkins Wilson about Belzoni's travels. They are not remotely similar to the Giza ones. The rows of fake witnesses are getting funnier. Avraam Norov, a Russian scientist, writer, Minister of Public Education, brother of the Decembrist VS Norov and the poet AS Norov, in his book managed to say nothing but his emotions and a retelling of Herodotus in a wordy chapter about the pyramids, accompanying this with a picture from his head. Khafren without a hat, the Sphinx of fantasy, the location is impossible. From this corner with the Sphinx, you can see Khafre and Menkaure, and from the quadcopter - two of the Pyramids of the Queens behind Menkaure. But the future minister had a list of objects, without a doubt. Maybe, on the condition of participation in the historical spectacle, they become ministers? Meanwhile, witnesses continued to show the Sphinx on the plateau (1832)... then not on the plateau... head to the east... then to the West (1823)... with the Great Pyramids without caps... and with hats... And they did it until the 1850s. The year 1838 came. The hat is believable, but the shape is unprecedented. That is, the cap had already been made, but the pyramid, still unseen by anyone, was in the ground. A year before the first daguerreotype with the top of Cheops, Roberts plausibly drew the shape of Cheops and fantastically - Khafre and Menkaure, confirming that they were still in the ground. At the same time, he showed for the last time a century-old project with the fourth pyramid.  And finally - tadaaam! - the world's first authentic images of the pyramids. With real shapes, location, details. Their author is John Shae Perring (1813-1869). Works of 1839-42. The workshop was almost in time for the beginning of the era of photography. None of the witnesses who drew and drew the Giza pyramids on maps before, as we have seen, had seen them in person Along with the Pyramid of Cheops, the passage of al-Mamun was also made, at the same time as the legend of the event of al-Mamun itself was planted. Its only source is a fairy tale from the collection "A Thousand and One Nights" "The Story of al-Mamun and the Pyramids". It was not in the first edition of The Tales from the Arabian Nights of 1704-1717, nor is it in the Paris reprint of 1806. Included by later publishers. At the same time - since we are talking about Arabic fairy tales - with the alleged evidence of the pyramids of the medieval historian al-Masudi, which tests only to the fact that he and the publisher did not see the real objects of Giza. And in the "drawing of an unknown Arab author of the 13th century" there is still the same favorite pyramid of Cestius.  At the same time - about the beloved , whose height of the Pyramid of Cheops is 8 plethra (1 plethra 29.6-30.83 m) made of blocks 30 feet long. An error in the height of 80-100 m and stupidity with the length of the blocks only indicate that the author of Herodotus' testimony did not see the object. He has the same pyramid of Cestius, only larger, the author of the "testimony of Herodotus" did not know any other samples.  Illustration of the work of Herodotus, a contemporary of the publication. Today, scientists have carefully opened the ramps-embankments, along which slaves dragged 3 million blocks. They almost don't lie. There was an embankment. Only the sand for the core and the components for molding the shell blocks were carried on site. And only the Sphinx was completed in the 1840s. Therefore, in 1838, the famous Egyptologist Roberts did not look like himself and was located anywhere. In the 1840 book of the about his alleged excavations in 1837, the Sphinx is still taken out of the head, there are no steales between the paws, and a wide staircase to the Temple begins in front of it))They did not report to the general about the change in the project. It happens... Back in 1842, the Austrian artist Leander Russ, living in Cairo, drew the Sphinx from his head. From his own. Because there was no sphinx yet.Admiring. Mind and health! Source:  The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction Does science know about the creation of ancient monuments in the age of cast iron? Slave labor on construction sites in Egypt The last construction camp on Giza. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the object was discovered, buried and forgotten by scientists. Now it is a wasteland, surrounded by barbed wire. Here , let me remind you, the details of the excavations. * Part of the answer to the title question was given in the last post: years and decades before the arrival of scientists who showed the world the monuments of Egypt, the first archaeologists, authors of scientific descriptions and books, the condition of the monuments was such that not only scientists, but also simply sane people would see the hardening mixture, the through reinforcement, and the true age. Admire, this is a shooting of 1850 and subsequent years. The first archaeologists a priori knew the real technology and age of the monuments, but consciously described the proper canon. The next generation of researchers who studied the monuments at the site also saw signs of the real time of creation, because it is impossible not to see them, and also made a choice: to describe the canon and remain in science. But there was a category of honest scientists - armchair scientists, who study monuments exclusively from sources and descriptions. These honestly believed in the canon and conscientiously described it. There can be no doubt about the scientists-restaurants and scientists-employees of the department for the preservation of historical heritage (in different countries it is called differently). They know perfectly well what exactly they are hiding from the public. But in networks, unlike science, the share of those who know is very small. From the beginning, nets were made as lists of alternatists and tradics, they should not have anything else. Of course, there are sane people who know about the creation of history and historical monuments, but their opinion, as soon as it arises, will immediately drown in the sea of ​​content of the two named candidates. Sometimes there are events that dramatically increase the share of knowledgeable people among the scientific and non-scientific public. In 2015, the clowns of the fanatical terrorist troupe made many people think about their antics in Hatra and Mosul. More than a century earlier, the Karnak Column Disaster had become such an event. When the world's largest columns of the Karnak hypostyle, which had recently been freed from sand, swayed from the duty flood of the Nile and the rise of groundwater, and 11 of them collapsed, many people realized that they could not stand for 3.7 thousand years, and did not stand without sand at all, but were made right in it. The footage below was made at the exact moment when scientists and the creators of history were working together in Karnak to correct the disaster and bring the monument to mind. * In general, even without photos, it is known that in the 16-19 centuries, when there were no cranes capable of lifting blocks of tens and hundreds of tons, as well as at the turn of the 19-20 centuries in places where it is impossible to put a crane, it was possible to put super-weights on top in the only way: with soil. The same dolmen technology, only larger in scale. But the dolmen's weight is smaller in scale than that of great structures like the Karnak Temple, where floor blocks weighing tens and hundreds of tons are raised onto a columnar foundation. They were then set on top with formwork soil. The sand pile was built up along with the column, aligned with the column ends, and the second-level elements, architraves, and flooring were formed on it. A simple, primitive, and untechnocratic method, timeless and applicable to any level of technical equipment. And accordingly, the most important labor force at all mega-monuments of imaginary antiquity is the earth movers. Photograph. 1900. The Temple of Amun. Beloved Karnak. The second and third levels are all formed. Soil removal is underway. The walls are already half-filled with dense soil. For those who recall the fabulous dunes and deserts that buried colossal structures like the Karnak Temple to the top, follow the rails. They go under the formwork soil. That is, first there were the rails, then they were covered with soil, and not the other way around. A primitive crane—a tripod made of logs—is also present. Of course, it can't lift blocks up, but it can move them along the second level, adjusting, shifting, and adjusting them to their proper locations according to the architect's design . The workers of Ancient Egypt, moving megatons of soil—women of various ages, from practically children to old women, each carrying a basket. One man—in the background—keeps an eye on them.  There's no doubt that these are ancient Egyptian convicts, the main labor force on the construction site. Perhaps the young women are serving life sentences somewhere in the penitentiary department. Perhaps they were bought or transferred without any regulations. Perhaps they don't exist at all for any department, and the then British administration of Egypt was told to ignore them. But in reality, they're a powerless workforce, at the complete mercy of the creators' workshop. Similar groups, wearing the same clothes, carrying the same baskets, have been captured on camera since the 1840s when photographing monuments.  Age and race are mixed; there are no men or children with their mothers, and they're all dressed identically. And most importantly, they're engaged in absolutely lousy labor—take more, carry it further. At Abu Simbel, we remember, they even installed pre-dawn lighting so they could begin work before daylight. This workforce costs nothing but rations and the overseer's wages, and can work like this all daylight hours. The foreman decided it was more profitable than bringing in and installing a crane. Or else, driving a crane in and installing it would be impossible and troublesome. Therefore, the lifting work is done, as always, by two-legged laborers, molding the foundations on the ground. The photograph is sad in person, but conceptually amusing. Both the year and the object. It's interesting because a year earlier, groundwater from the Nile flood toppled 11 of the largest Karnak columns and some other flimsy Karnak fortifications (can anyone seriously claim they'd stood for 3,700 years?)), and scientists are officially already restoring them, while in reality they're finishing up the mistakes of the workshop's botched work, blaming the creators primarily for the lack of foundations. The columns will be fully restored in 1902. Meanwhile, the workshop works side by side with official science, completing its construction process—removing the formwork soil. * The water supply system of the great Karnak construction site, passed down unchanged from the Ancient Egypt of historians, novels, and films. It's not hard to guess why a water supply was needed. The world's largest fallen columns had to be erected not just like that, but on a foundation commensurate with their weight. The foundations for the remaining standing columns also had to be built in stages, piece by piece. At Karnak, massive concrete work was underway, the foundations were laid later, and the workshop of the builders provided the water supply. This must be seen in detail!  The raised water flows into a ditch leading toward the temple. Overseers in clean white, one with a stick, oversee the process. Although even without them, it's clear that only those deprived of their freedom are capable of such labor. Free labor. Ancient Egyptian prisoners. Who will talk about the impossibility of great construction projects without tower cranes, electricity, gasoline pumps and pumps?)) Nothing has changed in the century since the previous stages of construction. This is from the report of the Napoleonic Commission, published in full in 1828. For some reason, Egyptologists were only too embarrassed to depict an overseer with a stick... This remarkable photograph from the great ancient Egyptian construction site of the Karnak Temple ruins continues the story of ancient Egyptian slave labor. It turns out there are three of the previously shown ancient Egyptian pumps for water supply to the great construction site. They manually lift water into the ditch leading to the site. No electricity! Apparently, the Egyptians didn't invent it. A small cistern on rails. Some kind of long-term use. It's unlikely this is drinking water for ancient Egyptian prisoners. Drinking water for a construction crew like this needs to be replenished daily, and the tank hasn't been removed in a long time—the rails on the photographer's side are even covered in sand. The prisoners will have to make do with lake water, which is lifted, and this is more likely some kind of thickening agent for the precise "stone-cutting" work. Why not this. Interesting sport. With great traditions))That's how it was with clays, only not in the form of "sports exercises". The main work at the construction sites of Egypt is the movement of soil and components of the molded mixture. When bloggers and readers talk about the incredible volume of monuments and the unthinkable amount of labor, they do not imagine either the real volume of the monuments, which are very modest in comparison with the known objects (in the body of the Aswan Dam, for example, there are 17 volumes of the Pyramid of Cheops, and no one beats the drum: ahh! oh! how is this possible!!), or the possibilities of a two-legged workforce. Even 5 walks per hour for an elderly woman with 7-8 kg in a basket will allow you to carry half a ton per day. And the portions, intensity, and ability to work of the construction contingent were greater. The workforce worked until the resource was fully exhausted, for days, months, years, living under armed supervision in the towns at the facilities. Egyptian burials of many thousands, where there are no ritual accessories, clothes, or jewelry on the bones, are often found in the world news. Their life and being were talked about in a post on the link under the title picture. It remains to add some details that were not included in that post due to its huge volume. Washing and washing in such camps were combined. The young ladies went to the Nile under supervision, splashed around without undressing, wrung out their loose clothes, and went back. In the hot and dry climate of Egypt, when we came to the camp, we were dry and clean. The cycle of testimonies about the Great Pyramids spoke in general terms about nutrition. In some supposedly ancient and early medieval testimonies, the pyramids were allegedly inscribed on how much and what kind of products the pharaoh spent on the builders. In the same type of description, in addition to root crops, onions and garlic were necessarily indicated. A daily clove of garlic, even in the Siberian climate, will protect against colds and diseases caused by aerobic pathogens all winter, and even more so in the Egyptian climate. Prevention and treatment of more serious diseases was carried out with the help of nutrition. If you can't walk and carry sand, don't go, but there will be no food. During the excavations of the Giza camp, scientists found a skeleton in one of the cells. Some were not even taken out and buried, they were left lying down for the edification of others. The Giza camp was created and operated as a temporary one, probably created at the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries, when and the filling and lining of the Pyramid of Menkaure, the height of which was not yet known in the publication of the Report of the Napoleonic Commission of 1824. The camp was filled up in the 1830s, perhaps even by the Perring-Howard Weiss team, who prepared Giza for the opening of wide access to scientists and the public. At huge facilities like the Luxor and Karnak complexes, the camps were long-term. In the pictures, the cells-dwellings are overlapped, from the semblance of roofs protrude surprising tree branches. These are the overlaps. The working force was not forbidden to take some fin from the Nile, dead wood from the coastal groves from the campaigns for washing and washing. Cutting tools were not supposed to cut off the excess, the wood was laid on the walls with branches. They plastered it with a mixture. There are no photographs of the interiors of such dwellings in Egypt, but there is a picture in the Tadmor camp in Palmyra. On the floor there is an elevation - a spaNext to it is a raised platform with the function of a table and a bedside table. In this post, you will find three pictures in a row showing the dynamics of sand removal from the hypostyle hall. The last picture shows a huge heap of small trunks and large branches left after the sand was carried away. What does this mean? At first, the camp stood inside the hall, the bottom of the perimeter columns and other elements was made. Gradually, the columns were built up, the sand level rose, the camp was filled up and reopened outside the hall. Luxor in some of the main buildings, and with it the camp, existed in the 16th-17th centuries, it is on the map of Lucas, who traveled to Nubia twice during this period. It existed until the era of photography, ie the middle of the XIX century. For sure, he participated in the outcast, together with other camps, in the super-intensive, super-Stakhanovite . By the end of its existence, the camp was civilized, acquired a house of the privileged class (and the class of ash stump) and a minaret, which also served as an observation tower. When the scientists finally demolished the camp, the privileged class persuaded them not to touch the house for who knows what carpets, and it comically remained hanging on the ledge of the ceiling, but only until the photographer who immortalized this comedy... The real history of monuments of discovered ancient history can be more interesting than discovered ancient history.  Source: The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction: gorojanin_iz_b — LiveJournal The Hidden Hand that Shaped History Has the course of History been directed by a small group of people with common interests? The paintings and pictures of the great men of the past centuries reveal a common thread which links them together. Is it a coincidence that many of them hid one of their hands when posing for a portrait Has the course of History been directed by a small group of people with common interests? The paintings and pictures of the great men of the past centuries reveal a common thread which links them together. Is it a coincidence that many of them hid one of their hands when posing for a portrait? It seems unlikely. We'll look at the Masonic origin of the "hidden hand" and the powerful men who used the sign in famous portraits. "Today's thinking toward a democratic world state is neither a new trend nor an accidental circumstance; the work of setting up the background of knowledge necessary to the establishing of enlightened democracy among all nations has been carried on for many hundreds of years by secret societies." -Manly P. Hall, Secret Destiny of America Is there a hidden force behind the world events of the past centuries? Are the fall of European monarchies, the bringing forth of the Age of Enlightenment and our path towards a world democracy part of a great plan lead by a "hidden hand"? Before the advent of mass media, portraits depicting their leaders in majestic poses were the only artifacts people had. Do these portraits have an occult meaning? One of those poses is the "hiding of the hand". I remember my history teacher trying to explain why Napoleon was often shown with a hand inside his shirt. The common explanation went along these lines: "Many theories have been presented as to why Napoleon is traditionally depicted with his hand in his waistcoat. Some of these theories include: he had a stomach ulcer, he was winding his watch, he had an itchy skin disease, in his era it was impolite to put your hands in your pockets, he had breast cancer, he had a deformed hand, he kept a perfumed sachet in his vest that he'd sniff surreptitiously, and that painters don't like to paint hands" -Tom Holmberg Unless all the individuals discussed in this article had a stomach ulcer or deformed hands, the gesture of hiding one's hand simply has to have a specific meaning. It does. Most of the people using this sign are proven (and often enthusiastic) members of the Freemasons. Considering the great importance of this gesture in Masonic rituals and the fact that all of the elite were either part of Freemasonry or knew of it, it is simply impossible that the recurrence of this sign could be the result of a coincidence. The "hidden hand" can, in fact, be found in the rituals of the Royal Arch Degree of Freemasonry and the world leaders that use this sign are subtly saying to other initiates of the order: "This is what I'm part of, this is what I believe in and this is what I'm working for".   The Royal Arch Degree The Triple Tau The Royal Arch Degree (the 13th degree of the Scottish Rite or the 7th degree of the York Rite) is also known as the Mason of the Secret. During this Degree, initiates are said to receive great Masonic truths. "The members of this Degree are denominated companions, and are "entitled to a full explanation of the mysteries of the Order"; whereas in the former Degrees they are recognized by the common, familiar appellation of brothers, and kept in a state of profound ignorance of the sublime secret which is disclosed in this Chapter. This accords with the custom of Pythagoras, who thus distinguished his pupils. After a probation of five years, as stated before, they were admitted into the presence of the preceptor, called his companions, and permitted  to converse with him freely. Previous to the expiration of that term he delivered his instructions to them from behind a screen" -John Fellows, Fellows's Inquiry into the Origin, History, and Purport of Freemasonry "If we pass on to the Royal Arch, we receive a wonderful accession of knowledge, and find every thing made perfect; for this is the nec plus ultra of Masonry, and can never be exceeded by any human institution." -George Oliver, Lectures on Freemasonry It is during this degree that the initiate learns the sacred name of God. "A Degree indescribably more august, sublime, and important than any which precede it, and is, in fact, the summit and perfection of ancient Masonry. It impresses upon our minds a belief in the being of a God, without beginning of days or end of years, the great and incomprehensible Alpha and Omega, and reminds us of the reverence which is due to His Holy NAME." -George Oliver, Historical Landmarks This holy name is Jahbulon, a combination of words meaning "god" in Syriac, Chaldaic, and Egyptian. "JEHOVAH. Of the varieties of this sacred name in use among the different nations of the earth, three particularly merit the attention of Royal Arch Masons: 1. JAH. This name of God is found in the 68th Psalm, v. 4. 2. BAAL OR BEL. This word signifies a lord, master, or possessor, and hence it was applied by many of the nations of the East to denote the Lord of all things, and the Master of the world. 3. ON. This was the name by which JEHOVAH was worshiped among the Egyptians." -Malcolm C. Duncan, Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor The initiation ritual to this degree re-enacts the return to Jerusalem of three Most Excellent Masons who were held captive in Babylon. The following image depicts the hand sign required to go through the second veil, as documented in Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor The hidden hand. "Master of Second Veil: "Three Most Excellent Masters you must have been, or thus far you could not have come; but farther you cannot go without my words, sign, and word of exhortation. My words are Shem, Japhet, and Adoniram; my sign is this: (thrusting his hand in his bosom); it is in imitation of one given by God to Moses, when He commanded him to thrust his hand into his bosom, and, taking it out, it became as leprous as snow. My word of exhortation is explanatory of this sign, and is found in the writings of Moses, viz., fourth chapter of Exodus": "And the Lord said unto Moses, Put now thine hand into thy bosom. And he put his hand into his bosom; and when he took it out, behold, his hand was leprous as snow". -Malcolm C. Duncan, Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor Said to be inspired by Exodus 4:6. In this biblical verse, the heart ("bosom") stands for what we are, the hand for what we do. It can thus be interpreted as: What we are is what we ultimately do. The symbolic significance of this gesture might explain the reason why it is so widely used by famous Masons. The hidden hand lets the other initiates know that the individual depicted is part of this secret Brotherhood and that his actions were inspired by the Masonic philosophy and beliefs. Furthermore, the hand that executes the actions is hidden behind cloth, which can symbolically refer to the covert nature of the Mason's actions. Napoleon, a known Mason in his study at the Tuileries, 1812 Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century. He was initiated into Army Philadelphia Lodge in 1798. His brothers, Joseph, Lucian, Louis, and Jerome, were also Freemasons. Five of the six members of Napoleon's Grand Counsel of the Empire were Freemasons, as were six of the nine Imperial Officers and 22 of the 30 Marshals of France. Bonaparte's association with Masonry has always been played down in historical records. Masonic researcher J.E.S. Tuckett addresses the situation: "It is strange that evidence in favor of the Great Napoleon's membership of the Masonic Brotherhood has never been examined in detail, for the matter is surely one of interest, and – seeing the remarkable part that remarkable men played in the affairs of Europe, at a time when Continental Freemasonry was struggling out of chaos into regular order – it cannot be without an important bearing upon Masonic history" In his essay on Napoleon and Masonry, Tuckett claims: "There is incontestable evidence that Napoleon was acquainted with the nature, aims and organization of Freemasonry: that he approved of and made use of it to further his own ends" -J.E.S. Tuckett, Napoleon I and Freemasonry (source) Napoleon was also said to be aided by occult powers. In 1813 he was defeated at Leipzip and behind him was a "Cabinet of Curiosities" in which a Prussian officer discovered his Book of Fate and Oraculum. Originally this Oraculum was discovered in one of the Royal tombs of Egypt during a French military expedition of 1801. The emperor ordered the manuscript to be translated by a famous German scholar and antiquarian. From that time onward, the Oraculum was one of Napoleon's most treasured possessions. He consulted it on many occasions and it is said to have "formed a stimulus to his most speculative and most successful enterprises." Hidden hand.   Karl Marx Karl Marx is known today to be the founder of modern Communism. Despite being denied by some Masons, Marx is said to have been a 32nd degree Grand Orient Freemason. Marx became the spokesman of the atheist and socialist movements of Europe. He planned the replacement of monarchies with socialist republics, with the next step conversion to communist republics. George Washington. George Washington George Washington was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and is considered to be the "most important American Mason". Charles Wilson Pealed produced this painting when Washington was 52 years old. Notice the position of Washington's feet: they form an oblong square. The position of the feet is of utmost importance in Masonic symbolism. Compare this with this excerpt from Duncan's Ritual Monitor: Positions.   Mozart. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is considered to be one of the most prolific and influential composers of music ever. He also was a Freemason and was initiated in the Austrian lodge Zur Zur Wohltatigkeit on Dec. 14th, 1784. Mozart's creations often incorporated important Masonic elements. The Magic Flute opera was mainly based on Masonic principles. "The music of the Freemasons contained musical phrases and forms that held specific semiotic meanings. For example, the Masonic initiation ceremony began with the candidate knocking three times at the door to ask admittance. This is expressed musically as a dotted figure: meanings. For example, This figure appears in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute in the overture, suggesting the opening of the Masonic initiation." – Katherine Thompson, The Masonic Thread in Mozart The musical progression of The Magic Flute was based on the Golden Ratio (1,6180…), the proportion of everything that is considered divine by Mystery Schools. Here are compositions created by Mozart for use in Masonic lodges: Lied (song) "Gesellenreise, for use at the installation of new journeymen" Cantata for tenor and male chorus Die Maurerfreude ("The Mason's Joy") The Masonic Funeral Music (Maurerische Trauermusik) Two songs to celebrate the opening of "Zur Neugekrönten Hoffnung" Cantata for tenor and piano, Die ihr die unermesslichen Weltalls Schöpfer ehrt The Little Masonic Cantata (Kleine Freimaurer-Kantate) entitled Laut verkünde unsre Freude, for soloists, male chorus, and orchestra Lafayette. Marquis de Lafayette Marquis de Lafayette was a 33rd degree Freemason. According to Willam R. Denslow's 10,000 Famous Freemasons, Lafayette was a French military officer who was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a leader of the Garde Nationale during the bloody French Revolution. Lafayette was also made an honorary Grand Commander of the Supreme Council of New York. More than 75 Masonic bodies in the U.S. have been named after him, including 39 lodges, 18 chapters, 4 councils, 4 commanderies, and 7 Scottish rite bodies.   Rothschild. Salomon Rothschild Salomon Rothschild was the founder of the Viennese branch of the prominent Mayer Amschel Rothschild family. The most powerful family in the world has greatly influenced the policies of Germany, France, Italy, and Austria. The Rothschilds are also the main players behind the creation of Zionism and the state of Israel. The power of the Rothschilds went way beyond the confines of the Masonic lodge. They are said to be part of the 13 "Illuminati Bloodlines". An analysis of the recently built Supreme Court of Israel (read the article here) confirms the Rothschild's embrace of Masonic symbolism. Bolivar. Simon Bolivar Known as "El Libertador" (the Liberator), Bolivar is considered to be the "George Washington of South America". He joined Freemasonry in Cadiz, Spain, received the Scottish Rite degrees in Paris and was knighted in a Commandery of Knights Templar in France in 1807. Bolivar founded and served as master of Protectora de las Vertudes Lodge No. 1 in Venezuela. The country of Bolivia is named after him. Bolivar also served as the president of Colombia, Peru and Bolivia in the 1820's. He belonged to the Order and Liberty Lodge No. 2 in Peru. Notice in the image above the position of his feet (oblong square) and the checkerboard pattern of the floor, also Masonic. His stance might have been inspired by the Knights of Christian Mark Degree as depicted below in Richardson's Monitor of Freemasonry:   Knights of the Christian Mark.   Joseph Stalin After being shot in 1940, the young man on the right has been edited out by Stalin's people. Hidden hand. Stalin's reign of terror in the Soviet Union lead to the deaths of millions of his own countrymen. He is often shown in pictures using the hidden hand gesture. No official records have been found that prove Stalin's initiation into Masonry. Of course, dictators such as Stalin tightly controlled all information concerning themselves and their affairs, making it difficult to prove anything one way or the other. The hiding of his hand, however,  provides an initiate's clue to his possible allegiance to an occult brotherhood.   Source: The Hidden Hand that Shaped History | Vigilant Citizen Satanic Occult Symbols In Washington D.C. The pentagon is an infinite occult symbol iI is the center of a pentagram and a pentagram fits perfectly inside a pentagon.   Obelisks are erect phallic (penis) symbols related to the Egyptian Sun god, Ra. The four sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level, each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet in width, which is equal to 666 inches each side. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. "The word 'obelisk' literally means 'Baal's Shaft' or Baal's organ of reproduction. This should be especially shocking when we realize that we have a gigantic obelisk in our nation's capital known as the Washington Monument." The Illuminati's push for global governance began in 1775 and became more visible the following year in 1776 during the Revolutionary War. While the 13 colonies broke from Britain, their leadership included high-ranking Freemasons. The mall in Washington DC is laid out so the gardens and streets form the image of an owl. The owl is representative of the mythical goddess, Lilith. The street design in Washington, D.C., has been laid out in such a manner that certain Satanic symbols are depicted by the streets, cul-de-sacs and rotaries. This design was created in 1791, a few years after Freemasonry assumed the leadership of the New World Order, in 1782. George Washington (a 33° Freemason) selected French Freemason Pierre Charles L'Enfant to design the city's layout in Washington D.C. The boundaries of the city, established by George Washington in 1791, form a square 10 miles long on each side, centered on the originally proposed location for the Washington Monument. The east-west diagonal of the square crosses over the Capitol building and the north-south diagonal crosses over the White House. The length of the north-south and east-west diagonals is 10 miles times the square root of 2, or 14.142 miles. This distance converts to 43,455 ancient Egyptian royal cubits, the same figure as the ratio between the Great Pyramid and the dimensions of the earth. The height of the Great Pyramid is 481.13 feet, divided by 5,280 = .0911231 miles. The mean radius of the earth is 3,960 miles, divided by .0911231 = 43,457. The perimeter of the Great Pyramid is 3,023 feet, divided by 5,280 = .5725 miles. The mean circumference of the earth is 24,880 miles, divided by .5725 = 43,458. 3,960 miles (radius of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 280 (number of cubits in the height of the Great Pyramid) 24,880 miles (circumference of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 1,760 (cubits in the perimeter of the Great Pyramid) Converting the radius and circumference of the earth to cubits yields the same results. Draw the pentagram and hexagram symbols together, you can see three sides of a cross. Finishing the symbol on the land sitting in front of the White House reveals a perfectly symmetrical Knights Templar cross. The 4 sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet long, which is equal to 666 inches. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. The obelisk is representative of the male sex organ, worship in nearly all pagan cultures. It is a symbol of man's carnal power and might. Satanism and the occult are saturated with sexual perversion, child-molesting, and human sacrifices. Most worshippers in these groups deny such claims, but some have openly professed it,   Above the dome of the Capitol building stands Lady Libertas, the goddess Isis. Guarding the entrance to the Capitol building is Nimrod (Baal) in the likeness of the Roman god Mars, Egyptians called Osiris. The image below this entrance is identical to that of the Roman Pantheon of the Gods - as well as the Greek Parthenon. The White House. The central part of the Supreme Court building Modeled after the Temple of Artemis, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The George Washington Masonic Memorial Modeled after descriptions of the Pharos of Alexandria - another wonder of the ancient world, Sits across the Potomac in Alexandria, Virginia just inside the diagonal square border of D.C.   Statue of Washington - Smithsonian Museum of American History was modeled after descriptions of the statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The museum is aligned to the cardinal directions; the statue sits at the western end of the main floor facing east. Compare this portrayal of Washington to the images of Zeus and Baphomet   "Historian/author Ralph Epperson has spent many years researching the history of the Great Seal and has discovered that those who designed the two circles committed America to what has been called 'A Secret Destiny.' This future 'destiny' is so unpleasant that those who wanted the changes it entails had to conceal that truth in symbols."   Condoleezza Rice at the United Nations in 2005 with the numbers 666 behind her   A kill box is a military term for a designated area where coordinated attacks against enemy targets are authorized without needing additional permission each time. It's commonly used in modern warfare—especially with air support and artillery—to speed up targeting and reduce confusion between different military units. There are two main types: Blue kill box – aircraft can attack targets in the area.  Purple kill box – both aircraft and surface weapons (like artillery) can engage targets.  The concept became widely known during conflicts such as the Gulf War and Iraq War. Outside the military, "kill box" can also refer to: A deadly trap area in video games or fiction  A confined shooting lane in tactical training  A thriller novel title or entertainment reference How Kill Boxes Work Operationally A kill box is essentially a pre-approved combat zone. Instead of requiring commanders to approve every individual strike, military planners establish a geographic area where enemy forces are expected to be operating. The basic process: Intelligence identifies an area where enemy forces are active.  Commanders define the boundaries of the kill box.  Rules of engagement are established.  Aircraft, drones, artillery, missiles, and other weapons systems can engage authorized targets within that area.  Coordination measures are used to prevent friendly-fire incidents.  The goal is speed. Modern battlefields move quickly, and waiting for approval on every target can allow enemy forces to escape. Kill boxes became especially important during the 1991 Gulf War and later operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, where aircraft, drones, artillery, and ground forces often operated simultaneously over large areas. Legal and Ethical Controversies The military argument is straightforward: Faster response times.  Better coordination.  Greater ability to attack moving targets.  Reduced command bottlenecks.  Critics raise several concerns: Civilian Casualties If intelligence is wrong or outdated, civilians can be present inside a designated kill box. One concern is that pre-authorized engagement areas may encourage rapid strikes before all information is verified. Identification Problems In counterinsurgency conflicts, fighters may not wear uniforms. Distinguishing: civilians  insurgents  local police  allied militias  can be extremely difficult. Accountability Critics argue that when authority is distributed across many units, responsibility for mistakes can become less clear. Questions often arise after civilian deaths: Who approved the kill box?  Who identified the target?  Who launched the strike?  Was the intelligence accurate?  International Humanitarian Law Under the laws of armed conflict, military forces must still follow: distinction (combatants vs. civilians)  proportionality  military necessity  Creating a kill box does not remove these legal obligations. A target inside a kill box is not automatically lawful to attack; forces are still expected to verify that it is a legitimate military objective. Gaming Meaning In video games, a "kill box" usually means something very different. Shooter Games A kill box is often: a choke point  a narrow corridor  a trap area  where players are funneled into concentrated fire. Examples occur in many multiplayer shooters where defenders have a strong advantage. Survival and Strategy Games In games such as Rim World, players intentionally build elaborate kill boxes: maze-like entrances  sandbags  turrets  traps  firing positions  The goal is to force enemies through a controlled route where they can be defeated efficiently. Game Development Developers sometimes use "kill box" to mean an invisible area that instantly kills a character if they fall off the map or leave the intended play space. The phrase tends to sound shocking because of the word "kill," but in military doctrine it is primarily a command-and-control term describing a geographic area where weapons employment has been pre-coordinated. The controversies arise not from the concept itself, but from how it is applied in real-world combat situations where civilians, intelligence errors, and complex battlefields can be involved. Many critics of U.S. foreign policy have expressed similar views, though others strongly disagree. The argument behind that criticism is that since the end of the World War II, the United States has maintained a global military presence, hundreds of overseas bases, extensive intelligence operations, drone programs, and has been involved in numerous conflicts, interventions, and counterterrorism campaigns. Critics argue that this creates a situation where military force can be projected almost anywhere on Earth, making much of the world subject to potential U.S. military action. Supporters of U.S. military policy typically make a different argument. They contend that the global presence helps deter rival powers, protects trade routes, supports allies, combats terrorist organizations, and contributes to international stability. Whether one sees the result as: global security,  global policing,  empire,  hegemony,  deterrence,  or a "worldwide kill box"  depends heavily on one's political, historical, and ethical perspective. From a strictly military standpoint, a "kill box" is a specific battlefield tool with defined geographic boundaries. Using it as a description of the entire world is metaphorical—a way of expressing concern that modern surveillance, drones, missiles, special operations forces, and global military reach have made almost any location potentially accessible to military force. Whether that metaphor is persuasive depends on how one interprets the role and consequences of U.S. power in the world. The Hiroshima Myth Every year during the first two weeks of August the mass news media and many politicians at the national level trot out the "patriotic" political myth that the dropping of the two atomic bombs on Japan in August of 1945 caused them to surrender, and thereby saved the lives of anywhere from five hundred thousand to 1 million American soldiers, who did not have to invade the islands. Opinion polls over the last fifty years show that American citizens overwhelmingly (between 80 and 90 percent) believe this false history which, of course, makes them feel better about killing hundreds of thousands of Japanese civilians (mostly women and children) and saving American lives to accomplish the ending of the war. The best book, in my opinion, to explode this myth is The Decision to Use the Bomb by Gar Alperovitz, because it not only explains the real reasons the bombs were dropped, but also gives a detailed history of how and why the myth was created that this slaughter of innocent civilians was justified, and therefore morally acceptable. The essential problem starts with President Franklin Roosevelt's policy of unconditional surrender, which was reluctantly adopted by Churchill and Stalin, and which President Truman decided to adopt when he succeeded Roosevelt in April of 1945. Hanson Baldwin was the principal writer for the New York Times who covered World War II and he wrote an important book immediately after the war entitled Great Mistakes of the War. Baldwin concludes that the unconditional surrender policy was perhaps the biggest political mistake of the war….Unconditional surrender was an open invitation to unconditional resistance; it discouraged opposition to Hitler, probably lengthened the war, cost us lives, and helped to lead to the present aborted peace. The stark fact is that the Japanese leaders, both military and civilian, including the emperor, were willing to surrender in May of 1945 if the emperor could remain in place and not be subjected to a war crimes trial after the war. This fact became known to President Truman as early as May of 1945. The Japanese monarchy was one of the oldest in all of history, dating back to 660 BC. The Japanese religion added the belief that all the emperors were the direct descendants of the sun goddess, Amaterasu. The reigning Emperor Hirohito was the 124th in the direct line of descent. After the bombs were dropped on August 6 and 9 of 1945, and their surrender soon thereafter, the Japanese were allowed to keep their emperor on the throne and he was not subjected to any war crimes trial. The emperor, Hirohito, came on the throne in 1926 and continued in his position until his death in 1989. Since President Truman, in effect, accepted the conditional surrender offered by the Japanese as early as May of 1945, the question is posed, "Why then were the bombs dropped?" The author Alperovitz gives us the answer in great detail which can only be summarized here, but he states, We have noted a series of Japanese peace feelers in Switzerland which OSS Chief William Donovan reported to Truman in May and June [1945]. These suggested, even at this point, that the U.S. demand for unconditional surrender might well be the only serious obstacle to peace. At the center of the explorations, as we also saw, was Allen Dulles, chief of OSS [Office of Strategic Services] operations in Switzerland (and subsequently Director of the CIA). In his 1966 book The Secret Surrender, Dulles recalled that "On July 20, 1945, under instructions from Washington, I went to the Potsdam Conference and reported there to Secretary [of War] Stimson on what I had learned from Tokyo — they desired to surrender if they could retain the Emperor and their constitution as a basis for maintaining discipline and order in Japan after the devastating news of surrender became known to the Japanese people." It is documented by Alperovitz that Stimson reported this directly to Truman. Alperovitz further points out in detail the documentary proof that every top presidential civilian and military advisor, with the exception of James Byrnes, along with Prime Minister Churchill and his top British military leadership, urged Truman to revise the unconditional surrender policy so as to allow the Japanese to surrender and keep their emperor. All this advice was given to Truman prior to the Potsdam Proclamation which occurred on July 26, 1945. This proclamation made a final demand upon Japan to surrender unconditionally or suffer drastic consequences. Another startling fact about the military connection to the dropping of the bomb is the lack of knowledge on the part of General MacArthur about the existence of the bomb and whether it was to be dropped. Alperovitz states, MacArthur knew nothing about advance planning for the atomic bomb's use until almost the last minute. Nor was he personally in the chain of command in this connection; the order came straight from Washington. Indeed, the War Department waited until five days before the bombing of Hiroshima even to notify MacArthur — the commanding general of the U.S. Army Forces in the Pacific — of the existence of the atomic bomb. Alperovitz makes it very clear that the main person Truman was listening to while he ignored all of this civilian and military advice was James Byrnes, the man who virtually controlled Truman at the beginning of his administration. Byrnes was one of the most experienced political figures in Washington, having served for over thirty years in both the House and the Senate. He had also served as a United States Supreme Court Justice, and at the request of President Roosevelt, he resigned that position and accepted the role in the Roosevelt administration of managing the domestic economy. Byrnes went to the Yalta Conference with Roosevelt and then was given the responsibility to get Congress and the American people to accept the agreements made at Yalta. When Truman became a senator in 1935, Byrnes immediately became his friend and mentor and remained close to Truman until Truman became president. Truman never forgot this and immediately called on Byrnes to be his number-two man in the new administration. Byrnes had expected to be named the vice presidential candidate [to FDR] to replace [Henry A.] Wallace and had been disappointed when Truman had been named, yet he and Truman remained very close. Byrnes had also been very close to Roosevelt, while Truman was kept in the dark by Roosevelt most of the time he served as vice president. Truman asked Byrnes immediately, in April, to become his secretary of state but they delayed the official appointment until July 3, 1945, so as not to offend the incumbent.  Byrnes had also accepted a position on the interim committee which had control over the policy regarding the atom bomb, and therefore, in April 1945 became Truman's main foreign policy advisor, and especially the advisor on the use of the atomic bomb. It was Byrnes who encouraged Truman to postpone the Potsdam Conference and his meeting with Stalin until they could know, at the conference, if the atomic bomb was successfully tested. While at the Potsdam Conference the experiments proved successful and Truman advised Stalin that a new massively destructive weapon was now available to America, which Byrnes hoped would make Stalin back off from any excessive demands or activity in the postwar period. Truman secretly gave the orders on July 25, 1945, that the bombs would be dropped in August while he was to be en route back to America. On July 26, he issued the Potsdam Proclamation, or ultimatum, to Japan to surrender, leaving in place the unconditional surrender policy, thereby causing both Truman and Byrnes to believe that the terms would not be accepted by Japan. The conclusion drawn unmistakably from the evidence presented is that Byrnes is the man who convinced Truman to keep the unconditional surrender policy and not accept Japan's surrender so that the bombs could actually be dropped, thereby demonstrating to the Russians that America had a new forceful leader in place, a "new sheriff in Dodge" who, unlike Roosevelt, was going to be tough with the Russians on foreign policy and that the Russians needed to "back off" during what would become known as the "Cold War." A secondary reason was that Congress would now be told about why they had made the secret appropriation to a Manhattan Project and the huge expenditure would be justified by showing that not only did the bombs work but that they would bring the war to an end, make the Russians back off, and enable America to become the most powerful military force in the world. If the surrender by the Japanese had been accepted between May and the end of July of 1945 and the emperor had been left in place, as in fact he was after the bombing, this would have kept Russia out of the war. Russia agreed at Yalta to come into the Japanese war three months after Germany surrendered. In fact, Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, and Russia announced on August 8, (exactly three months thereafter) that it was abandoning its neutrality policy with Japan and entering the war. Russia's entry into the war for six days allowed them to gain tremendous power and influence in China, Korea, and other key areas of Asia. The Japanese were deathly afraid of communism and if the Potsdam Proclamation had indicated that America would accept the conditional surrender allowing the emperor to remain in place and informed the Japanese that Russia would enter the war if they did not surrender, then this would surely have assured a quick Japanese surrender. The second question that Alperovitz answers in the last half of the book is how and why the Hiroshima myth was created. The story of the myth begins with the person of James B. Conant, the president of Harvard University, who was a prominent scientist, having initially made his mark as a chemist working on poison gas during World War I. During World War II, he was chairman of the National Defense Research Committee from the summer of 1941 until the end of the war and he was one of the central figures overseeing the Manhattan Project. Conant became concerned about his future academic career, as well as his positions in private industry, because various people began to speak out concerning why the bombs were dropped. On September 9, 1945, Admiral William F. Halsey, commander of the Third Fleet, was publically quoted extensively as stating that the atomic bomb was used because the scientists had a "toy and they wanted to try it out." He further stated, "The first atomic bomb was an unnecessary experiment….It was a mistake to ever drop it." Albert Einstein, one of the world's foremost scientists, who was also an important person connected with the development of the atomic bomb, responded and his words were headlined in the New York Times: "Einstein Deplores Use of Atom Bomb." The story reported that Einstein stated that "A great majority of scientists were opposed to the sudden employment of the atom bomb." In Einstein's judgment, the dropping of the bomb was a political-diplomatic decision rather than a military or scientific decision. Probably the person closest to Truman, from the military standpoint, was Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral William Leahy, and there was much talk that he also deplored the use of the bomb and had strongly advised Truman not to use it, but advised rather to revise the unconditional surrender policy so that the Japanese could surrender and keep the emperor. Leahy's views were later reported by Hanson Baldwin in an interview that Leahy "thought the business of recognizing the continuation of the Emperor was a detail which should have been solved easily." Leahy's secretary, Dorothy Ringquist, reported that Leahy told her on the day the Hiroshima bomb was dropped, "Dorothy, we will regret this day. The United States will suffer, for war is not to be waged on women and children." Another important naval voice, the commander in chief of the US Fleet and chief of naval operations, Ernest J. King, stated that the naval blockade and prior bombing of Japan in March of 1945 had rendered the Japanese helpless and that the use of the atomic bomb was both unnecessary and immoral. Also, the opinion of Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, given in a press conference on September 22, 1945, was reported as: "The Admiral took the opportunity of adding his voice to those insisting that Japan had been defeated before the atomic bombing and Russia's entry into the war." In a subsequent speech at the Washington Monument on October 5, 1945, Admiral Nimitz stated, "The Japanese had, in fact, already sued for peace before the atomic age was announced to the world with the destruction of Hiroshima and before the Russian entry into the war." It was learned also that on or about July 20, 1945, General Eisenhower had urged Truman, in a personal visit, not to use the atomic bomb. Eisenhower's assessment was, "It wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing….[T]o use the atomic bomb, to kill and terrorize civilians, without even attempting [negotiations], was a double crime." Eisenhower also stated that it wasn't necessary for Truman to "succumb" to Byrnes. James Conant came to the conclusion that some important person in the administration must go public to show that the dropping of the bombs was a military necessity, thereby saving the lives of hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, so he approached Harvey Bundy and his son, McGeorge Bundy. It was agreed by them that the most important person to create this myth was Secretary of War Henry Stimson. It was decided that Stimson would write a long article to be widely circulated in a prominent national magazine. This article was revised repeatedly by McGeorge Bundy and Conant before it was published in Harper'sMagazine in February of 1947. The long article became the subject of a front-page article and editorial in the New York Times, and in the editorial it was stated, "There can be no doubt that the president and Mr. Stimson are right when they mention that the bomb caused the Japanese to surrender." Later, in 1959, President Truman specifically endorsed this conclusion, including the idea that it saved the lives of a million American soldiers. This myth has been renewed annually by the news media and various political leaders ever since. It is very pertinent that in the memoir of Henry Stimson entitled On Active Service in Peace and War,he states, "Unfortunately, I have lived long enough to know that history is often not what actually happened but what is recorded as such." To bring this matter more into focus from the human tragedy standpoint, I recommend the reading of a book entitled Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6–September 30, 1945, by Michiko Hachiya. He was a survivor of Hiroshima and kept a daily diary about the women, children, and old men that he treated on a daily basis in the hospital. The doctor was badly injured himself but recovered enough to help others and his account of the personal tragedies of innocent civilians who were either badly burned or died as a result of the bombing puts the moral issue into a clear perspective for all of us to consider. Now that we live in the nuclear age and there are enough nuclear weapons spread around the world to destroy civilization, we need to face the fact that America is the only country to have used this awful weapon and that it was unnecessary to have done so. If Americans would come to recognize the truth, rather than the myth, it might cause such a moral revolt that we would take the lead throughout the world in realizing that wars in the future may well become nuclear and therefore all wars must be avoided at almost any cost. Hopefully, our knowledge of science has not outrun our ability to exercise prudent and humane moral and political judgment to the extent that we are destined for extermination.  Source: The Hiroshima Myth | Mises Institute Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part I by Dave McGowan | Jan 24, 2014 In just a little over a year – in what will be an historic 150-year anniversary – the American people, and likely people all around the world, will come together in remembrance of the man who was once rather preposterously described by a biographer as "the most gentle, most magnanimous, most Christ-like ruler of all time." That man, of course, was Abraham Lincoln, allegedly the 16th and most beloved President of these United States.   I say "allegedly" here because it is hard to see how someone could be the president of an entity that didn't actually exist. And the reality is that during Lincoln's tenure, there was no such thing as the "United" States. There were Northern states presided over by Washington, and there were Confederate states presided over by a parallel government in Richmond, but there certainly weren't any "united" states. Wouldn't it then be just as accurate to describe Jefferson Davis as the 16th president of the United States? Just checking.   I also say "allegedly" here because Lincoln was most certainly not, during his lifetime, a beloved man. He was thoroughly despised throughout half the country, and wasn't even all that popular in the north. He received merely 40% of the popular vote in 1860 and could have, as more honest historians have noted, been very easily defeated had the Democratic Party bothered to field a viable candidate. But Lincoln was clearly the anointed one.   As we all know, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by famed actor and Southern sympathizer John Wilkes Booth on the evening of April 14, 1865 (which happened to be Good Friday) while attending a play at Ford's Theater in Washington, DC. Just five days earlier, General Robert E. Lee had surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox, effectively signaling an end to the unfathomably bloody US Civil War. What is less widely known is that the assassination of Lincoln was allegedly part of a larger plot that was to have included the simultaneous assassinations of General Grant, Vice President Andrew Johnson, Secretary of State William Seward and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.    John Wilkes Booth, in a Masonic pose This alleged plot, which is part of the official history of the Lincoln assassination, obviously involved people other than John Wilkes Booth. Nine of those people faced trial as co-conspirators, eight by military tribunal (Mary Surrat, David Herold, George Atzerodt, Dr. Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, Michael O'Laughlen, Edward Spangler, and Lewis Paine [or Lewis Payne, or Lewis Powell, depending upon who is telling the tale]), and one who later stood trial alone (John Surrat). Four were executed, three received life sentences, one was given a six-year prison term, and one was acquitted. As for Booth, he was captured and gunned down at Garrett's barn on April 26, 1865 and so never made it to trial.   And that, in a nutshell, is the official narrative of the Lincoln assassination. It is an unusual narrative, to be sure, because it explicitly acknowledges a 'conspiracy' surrounding the death of a president. Of course, many of the details are usually left out when the story is told, leading many to think of John Wilkes Booth as just another 'lone nut' assassin. But Booth was hardly a lone nut and there was in fact a conspiracy at the heart of the Lincoln assassination, though the people targeted by the government weren't the real conspirators; the real conspirators were the very people who orchestrated the witch hunt against the scapegoats.   But before we get to that, let's first skip ahead and look at some of the forgotten aftermath of the assassination, because there is always much to be learned by examining the fates that befall those involved to varying degrees in political conspiracies, especially those unfortunate souls whose names are largely consigned to the dustbins of history.   Let's begin with Sergeant Thomas "Boston" Corbett, the Jack Ruby of the Lincoln assassination. Corbett was a strange character if ever there was one. How strange, you ask? Strange enough to have reportedly castrated himself circa 1858, and to have then opted not to seek medical attention until he had tended to other, apparently more important, business. He was widely considered to be mentally unbalanced, shockingly enough, and he often spoke of hearing disembodied voices. He was mockingly referred to by his fellow soldiers as "the Glory to God man" due to his rather unorthodox religious beliefs, which he wasn't shy about sharing.  Thomas "Boston" Corbett   Due to his bizarre behavior and his unwillingness, or inability, to follow orders, Corbett had been court-martialed and discharged from the service. For some unexplained reason though, he was allowed to re-enlist in 1863 and he quickly thereafter rose to the rank of sergeant. In April 1865, he was assigned to the elite team that captured Booth and, in defiance of direct orders, he personally shot and killed the man who was said to be Booth. Corbett was never reprimanded or disciplined for his actions and in fact profited handsomely by touring the country for years as "The Man Who Killed Booth."   In 1887, Corbett was appointed as the clerk/doorman of the Kansas state legislature. Things didn't go so well for him after that. According to some reports, one day he just decided to shoot the place up, though other accounts hold that he didn't fire his weapon but merely brandished it and issued threats. Whatever the case, he quickly found himself committed to a mental asylum. He managed to escape soon enough though and may have briefly surfaced in Texas before never being seen or heard from again.   Let's next turn our attention to Major Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris, the couple who were sharing the presidential box at Ford's Theater with Abe and Mary Lincoln. At the time, Rathbone was dating Harris, who was both Rathbone's stepsister and the daughter of US Senator Ira Harris. Rathbone was reportedly deeply cut when he attempted to disarm and detain Booth, who escaped by leaping over the railing and onto the stage.      Clara Harris     Major Henry Rathbone   Rathbone later married Harris and the two started a family and moved to Germany, where Rathbone served as the US Consul to Hanover. Things didn't work out so well though for the Rathbones; in December 1883, Henry tried to kill his children and, when thwarted in that effort, instead shot and brutally carved up wife Clara, before turning the knife on himself. Like Corbett, he was sent off to an asylum, but unlike Corbett, Henry Rathbone spent the rest of his life there.   Since I mentioned Mary Todd Lincoln just a couple paragraphs ago, I should probably mention that she also ended up in an insane asylum. Always a bit on the crazy side, Mary became considerably crazier after the assassination, exhibiting increasingly erratic behavior and suffering from vivid hallucinations. She was ultimately committed by her own son, Robert Todd Lincoln.        Mary Todd Lincoln   To say that Robert Lincoln had some rather unusual aspects to his life story would be quite an understatement. To begin with, we could note that he had the distinction of being the only man in history with direct links to three presidential assassinations. Just twenty-one when his father was gunned down, he subsequently was present at the assassinations of James Garfield in 1881 and William McKinley in 1901. He was also the only Lincoln son to survive his childhood; brother Eddie died at age 3 in 1850, brother Willie at age 11 in 1862, and brother Tad barely made it to age 18 before dying in 1871.   According to Robert Lincoln's own account, he was involved in a truly bizarre incident in late 1864/early 1865, not long before the death of his father. The younger Lincoln was saved from serious injury and possible death when he was pulled to safety by a stranger during a mishap on a train platform. That stranger just happened to be Edwin Booth, an older brother of John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln later maintained a long-term friendship and possible romance with Lucy Hale, the daughter of US Senator John Hale and a former paramour and fiancé of John Wilkes Booth. Small world, I guess.  Robert Todd Lincoln   Speaking of Edwin Booth, on June 9, 1893, just as his casket was being carried for burial (he had died two days earlier), Ford's Theater mysteriously collapsed, killing 22 people and injuring another 68. The building had been converted into a government record storage facility and some of the records of the assassination were lost in the wreckage. Shit happens.   Edwin and John's sister, Rosalie Booth, died under mysterious circumstances in January 1880; rumors at the time spoke of a "mysterious assailant." Edwin Booth Clark, a son of sister Asia Booth and therefore a nephew of John Wilkes Booth, attended Annapolis and became a US Naval officer, but he thereafter disappeared at sea. Officially, he committed suicide by jumping overboard. And Junius Brutus Booth, the patriarch of the Booth clan, is said to have gone insane.        The Booth siblings – John Wilkes, Edwin and Junius, Jr.   US Senator Preston King, credited with being one of the guys who supposedly prevented a mercy petition on behalf of Mary Surrat from reaching President Andrew Johnson, decided on November 12, 1865 to go swimming in New York with a bag of bullets tied around his neck. Officially, his death was a very innovative suicide. US Senator James Lane, the other guy credited with supposedly preventing the mercy petition on behalf of Surrat from reaching Johnson, shot himself in the head while jumping from a carriage in Leavenworth, Kansas on July 1, 1866. Or else he slit his own throat. Whichever sounds better to you.     Senator Preston King    Senator James Lane   US Senator John Conness, a likely conspirator and a pallbearer at Lincoln's funeral, was committed to an insane asylum, where he later died. There was a lot of that sort of thing going around in those days. The body of William Peterson – the owner of the boardinghouse where Lincoln was taken immediately after being shot, and where he died the next morning – was found on the grounds of the Smithsonian loaded with the drug laudanum. His death, needless to say, was ruled a suicide.        Senator John Conness   Colonel William Browning, who was Vice President Andrew Johnson's personal secretary as well as being a personal friend to John Wilkes Booth (Browning claimed that Johnson was close to Booth as well), is believed to have been murdered, though details are sketchy. Less sketchy were the murders of Frank Boyle and William Watson, both of whom had the misfortune of physically resembling John Wilkes Booth. Both of their bodies were turned over to the War Department by overzealous vigilantes for the reward that was being offered. Stanton's department covered up the murders by unceremoniously disposing of the bodies, one of which was dumped into the Potomac River.   Frances Adeline Seward and Frances Adeline "Fanny" Seward had the misfortune of bearing witness to the staged attack on William Seward, sitting Secretary of State and the husband of Frances and the father of Fanny. Frances died of a reported heart attack on June 21, 1865, the summer solstice, just two months after the assassination of Lincoln and the alleged attempt on her husband's life. Fanny died the next year, on October 29, 1866, just before Halloween. She was just twenty-one; the cause of her death remains unknown. A few years later, in 1870, William Seward legally 'adopted' his young 'companion,' Olive Risley, as his 'daughter.' Risley was 26 at the time and Seward was 69.    William Seward, in a Masonic pose, with daughter Fanny   Lafayette Baker was undoubtedly one of the central conspirators involved in the Lincoln assassination. As 'Honest' Abe's spymaster and head of the NDP, forerunner of the US Secret Service, Baker had instituted a reign of terror, just as he had previously done as a member of San Francisco's Vigilance Committee, running roughshod over the US Constitution. Under Baker's (and Stanton's) tyrannical watch, there were 260,000 dubious arrests made and some 38,000 people held without trial as political prisoners. Baker also introduced such innovations as midnight raids, forced entry without warrants, imprisonment without bail, and summary arrests.   Circa 1867, Baker published a book revealing the existence of what was said to be Booth's suppressed diary. He subsequently barricaded himself in his home and told friends that a secret cabal was intent on killing him. Press reports from December 1867 through February 1868 tell of repeated attempts made on his life; he was shot at twice, stabbed on his own front porch, and beaten by three or four men who attempted to abduct him. Nevertheless, when he turned up dead on July 3, 1868, the cause of death was said to be meningitis, necessitating an immediate, sealed burial. A later exhumation though indicated that the cause of death was actually arsenic poisoning. Baker left behind cryptic notes alluding to a conspiracy behind the Lincolnassassination involving eleven members of Congress, twelve US Army officers, three US Navy officers, one governor, five bankers, three nationally known newspapermen, and eleven wealthy industrialists.  Lafayette Baker   Police officer John F. Parker had the dubious distinction of being the guy who was supposed to be guarding Lincoln at the time of the assassination, except that he instead opted to wander over next door to get good and drunk. Parker had a seriously checkered history with the department, having been written up on multiple occasions for conduct unbecoming an officer, the use of insolent language, visiting a house of prostitution, inappropriately discharging his weapon, sleeping on duty, and being drunk on duty. He was nevertheless assigned the task of guarding the president, a development that historians have been unable to explain. And he was assigned that task just in time to be neglecting his duties when Lincoln was shot.   Parker was never reprimanded in any way for abandoning his post and leaving the president vulnerable. In fact, he was returned to duty at the White House, an honor usually reserved for senior officers with unblemished records. He was released from duty though in 1868, just after Stanton relinquished his post as Secretary of War. Parker was never seen or heard from again, and it is believed that he was either killed or went into hiding to avoid being killed.   Next up is Edwin Stanton, Lincoln's Secretary of War and a seriously deranged individual. Prior to his emergence on the national scene, Stanton's greatest claim-to-fame was securing an acquittal for US Representative Daniel Sickles on murder charges. On February 27, 1859, Sickles had gunned down the unarmed Philip Barton Key II, US Attorney for the District of Columbia and the son of famed composer Francis Scott Key. Stanton argued a temporary insanity defense for the first time in US history.  Edwin Stanton   The media, apparently every bit as corrupt in those days as it is today, overwhelmingly supported Sickles while vilifying both Key and Sickles' wife, who had reportedly been having an affair. Though standing trial for a capital offense, Sickles was allowed to stay in his jailer's apartment, have unlimited visitors, and, most amazingly, retain his weapon. As already stated, Sickles was acquitted and was subsequently allowed to retain his seat in the House of Representatives. He later became a Civil War general and the US Minister to Spain.   Elsewhere in Stanton's biography, we find that at various times in his life he personally ordered the exhumation of at least two bodies, one of them being his daughter Lucy, who was dug up circa 1842. According to reports, Stanton kept his daughter's decomposing corpse in a special container in his home for at least a year. Nothing there that would cause anyone to question his fitness to serve as Secretary of War.   Stanton became a national figure when he was appointed by President Buchanan to serve as Attorney General on December 20, 1860, just weeks before Lincoln took office. He went on to wield considerable power in both the Lincoln and Johnson Administrations. Indeed, Johnson's attempted dismissal of Stanton lead directly to the impeachment proceedings begun against him. Stanton's reign came to an end though on December 24, 1869, when he turned up dead of unstated causes (though some reports allude to suicide, just as his brother had reportedly done in 1846). He had been nominated for a seat on the US Supreme Court by President Grant and confirmed by the US Senate, but he died before he could take that seat.   That is a whole lot of tragedy to befall a lot of people who were in a position to know more about the Lincoln assassination than they should have. There was though at least one guy who saw his fortunes rise. Major General Lew Wallace was a member of the hopelessly corrupt military tribunal that sat in judgment of Mary Surrat and others. In 1880, he became far better known as a writer of historical fiction when he wrote and published Ben Hur, the best-selling novel of the nineteenth century. Well over a hundred years later, it is still in print.      Lew Wallace Source:  Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part I | The Center for an Informed America Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part II by Dave McGowan | Feb 9, 2014 I know what you must be thinking here: "How the hell could you leave Francis Tumblety out of the previous post? Compared to him, guys like Boston Corbett, Henry Rathbone and Edwin Stanton seem perfectly sane. And whose name was in the news in a weirder way in the years following the assassination than the esteemed Dr. Francis Tumblety? And in addition, doesn't he deserve honorable mention for the ridiculous facial hair alone?"   I can't really argue much with any of that. I think it was probably a subconscious omission so that I would have something really good to start this post with. Because as stories go, the Francis Tumblety story is pretty damn good. And seriously strange. But before getting to that, I must also quickly add Father Wiget to the list. Not much can be dug up on him other than that he was assigned as Mary Surrat's spiritual adviser during the brief period that she sat in her cell waiting to be executed, and he died shortly thereafter.   Moving on now to the man of the hour, Francis Tumblety was arrested on May 5, 1865, on suspicion of being complicit in the plot to assassinate Abraham Lincoln. Tumblety was an associate of – and by some reports a sometime employer of – executed conspirator David Herold. His arrest was ordered by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. To be fair to Tumblety though, it should be noted that he was only one of some 2,000 people who were arrested as possible conspirators. That's how things work in a democracy, you see – falsely imprison first, ask questions later.     The esteemed Dr. Francis Tumblety   In any event, Tumblety was held for nearly a month before being released on May 30, 1865. Prior to his arrest, he had lived a very colorful life. Born circa 1833 and raised in New York, Tumblety was widely viewed as a charlatan and a kook. While still a minor, he reportedly peddled pornographic materials. He soon transformed into a quack "Indian herb doctor" who was run out of various parts of the country for running cons. In one reported case, he was directly involved in the death of a 'patient,' though he suffered no repercussions for his actions. According to one account, he kept a collection of human uteruses on display in his Washington, DC home.   Some twenty-three years after his arrest in Washington, Tumblety took up lodging in, of all places, a boardinghouse in London's Whitechapel district. He was identified at that time, and has been identified by various researchers since that time, as being a prime suspect in the still unsolved Jack the Ripper murders. Following an arrest on November 7, 1888 for "gross indecency," Tumblety fled the country on November 20 under an assumed name and quickly made his way back to the US, where he died some five years later.   What are the odds, one wonders, that the very same guy would be suspected of involvement in two such completely different and seemingly unconnected crimes? Two crimes separated by a vast ocean and the passage of nearly two-and-a-half decades? Probably about the same odds that a guy like John Phillips would have connections to both the Black Dahlia murder and the Manson bloodbath.   *******************************************************   Pictured below is the single-shot derringer that, according to the legend we all know so well, John Wilkes Booth used to assassinate President Abraham Lincoln. One of the most iconic pieces of historical memorabilia that this country has to offer, it has been displayed for decades, viewed by millions, and written about by thousands. But after the passage of 149 years, it doesn't appear that anyone has ever thought to question why Booth, an intelligent and educated man by all accounts, would choose such a ridiculous weapon to take with him on his mission. Let's imagine that it is the evening of April 14, 1865, and you are John Wilkes Booth. Your mission is to assassinate the president. In a crowded theater. In the middle of Washington, which, at the time, is heavily fortified and militarized. Because there is, you know, a war going on. And the enemy's base of operations – in Richmond, Virginia – is only 100 miles away. So the nation's capital is crawling with armed military personnel, armed police patrols, and armed thugs in the employ of Baker and Stanton.   Your mission then is not going to be an easy one. The president is under armed guard, or at least he's supposed to be. He's also supposed to be in the company of General Ulysses S. Grant, who is known to always be armed. Of course, Grant has fortuitously opted to get the hell out of Dodge just hours before he was to have accompanied the Lincolns to the theater, but you shouldn't have any way of knowing that, just as you shouldn't have any way of knowing that Parker will desert his post. And there will be no shortage of other armed personnel in Ford's Theater, including Army Captain Theodore McGowan (no relation), who is seated very near the door to Lincoln's box seats.   So you have to assume that you're going to have to get past at least two armed attendants, and probably more, to get to the president. And you're going to have to do that without firing a shot, since you only have one and you will need to save that for Abe. And since the only realistic chance you have of actually killing Lincoln with your wildly inaccurate weapon is by sneaking up behind him and delivering a contact wound to his head, you're going to have to get past any guards without making any noise. And since Grant is supposedly also on the hit list, you're going to have to kill him as well, which I guess you'll have to do by bludgeoning him with your empty gun. That should work out pretty well.     Ford's Theater, circa 1865   You're not on a suicide mission, by the way, so even if you somehow manage to successfully assassinate the president, and presumably General Grant as well, you're still going to have some major problems on your hands. First of all, you're going to have to make your escape from a theater full of people, many of them armed. Because in April 1865, the beginning of the era that will be mythologized as the 'Wild West' days, there are guns everywhere and everyone is packing heat. And you, of course, will have blown your wad and will be unarmed.   If you somehow manage to make your way out of the theater, then you will face the daunting prospect of making your way out of the city and across the Potomac. And as I may have mentioned, DC is swarming with armed soldiers, armed spies and armed police, as well as armed citizens. And your only means of defending yourself will be with a dagger, which probably isn't going to be very effective.   Your goal is to reach the Navy Yard Bridge, which will get you across the Potomac and to relative safety. But even if you reach it, you've still got a big hurdle to overcome: the bridge has a strict curfew and the armed guard is under standing orders not to allow anyone to cross without explicit authorization. If you attempt to cross without anyway, you will be shot. A gun might come in handy, but you won't have one.     The Navy Yard Bridge, John Wilkes Booth's passage out of town   To recap then, you have set a very ambitious goal for yourself. You must first get to the president, who is sitting in a private box in a crowded theater with at least two armed attendants. You must then kill the president with a single shot, because your weapon doesn't allow for second chances, and also somehow kill General Grant. You must then, in an unarmed state, make an escape first from the theater and then from the city, and you must get past an armed guard at the bridge. And you have to do all of that with just one bullet. It's hard to see how anything could go wrong with such a brilliant plan.   Of course, it doesn't have to be this way. There are other weapons available. Weapons better suited to your mission. And as an alleged Southern operative, you should surely know that. It was, after all, Confederate guerilla groups that pioneered the shock-and-awe tactic of using overwhelming force in the form of multiple revolvers. We've all seen images of Wild West gunslingers riding hard with their reins in their teeth, six-shooters blazing in both hands. It's only natural to dismiss such images as a hackneyed Hollywood creation. But strangely enough, it's actually not. Rebel groups like Mosby's Rangers and Quantrill's Raiders really did train to do exactly that. And they wore custom-made holsters that could hold as many as six revolvers, three on each side. That allowed them to get off as many as 36 shots before their overwhelmed Union adversaries, armed with muskets, could reload and get off so much as a second shot.   Those semi-mythical figures in American history that we know as Frank and Jesse James, and Jim, Bob, John and Cole Younger, and Bill, Grat, Bob and Emmett Dalton, learned the skills they later employed as Wild West 'outlaws' while riding with the likes of William Quantrill and "Bloody Bill" Anderson. But that's not really the point here – the point here is that revolvers are easy to come by and might serve you better than a nearly-worthless single-shot derringer. And according to the official story, you definitely have access to at least two of them (pictured below). There are other things you might want to consider as well, such as not committing the crime as John Wilkes Booth. You are, after all, a famous stage actor, which means that you are also a wardrobe and makeup guy. Because in your era, you and your contemporaries have to handle those duties yourselves, so you travel with a couple large trunks full of stuff like wigs and fake beards. You could easily don a convincing disguise so as not to be easily recognized. Then you don't have to worry about getting out of the city alive; all you have to do is make it out of the theater, quickly ditch the disguise, and then you can circle around and rejoin the crowd at Ford's without arousing any suspicion at all.   And you do, after all, have a lot at stake. Even if you manage to make an escape from DC, your lifestyle and career will be distant memories. All the fame, all the female adoration, all the success, all the wealth … it will all be gone if you commit the crime as John Wilkes Booth. So you might want to put on a disguise. And replace that derringer with a revolver or two. And maybe bring an accomplice or two along for additional firepower. You have quite a few co-conspirators to choose from.   You also might want to reconsider whether Ford's Theater is the best place to do this. According to numerous historians, Lincoln has a bad habit of ignoring advice from aides and strolling around Washington unescorted at times, leaving him seriously vulnerable. That might make it a bit easier to successfully pull this off.     Fanny Brown, one of Booth's many paramours   In summary then, your best bet is probably to make the attempt on Lincoln's life when he is alone and unprotected. And you should probably bring along some more impressive firepower, just in case. If you are determined to do it in the theater, you should don a disguise and bring along a couple other gunmen in case one or more of you are killed or physically prevented from reaching the president. The dumbest thing you could probably do would be to go it alone, as John Wilkes Booth, and arm yourself only with a derringer. But I guess you can't argue with success … right?   Meanwhile, one of your comrades-in-arms, Lewis Paine/Payne/Powell, has a difficult task ahead of him as well. His goal is to kill Lincoln's Secretary of State, William Seward, who is recuperating at his stately manor in the heart of DC after being severely injured in a fall from a horse-drawn carriage just nine days earlier. Seward had suffered a broken lower jaw, a fractured right arm, torn ligaments in his foot, and heavy bruising over much of his body.   The 63-year-old secretary is therefore physically vulnerable, but assassinating him is still not going to be easy. For starters, Paine is going to have to gain access to the estate. Then he's going to have to find Seward without knowing the layout of the home or which floor or which of the many rooms the secretary is in. And he's going to have to get past a lot of people, because there are no less than eight other able-bodied adults in the home, five of them men, two of whom are military personnel. And there are readily accessible weapons in the home. And, as I may have mentioned, there are armed patrols all over the city, and they are quite capable of quickly responding to any signs of a disturbance at the Secretary of State's residence.     The rear view of Ford's Theater and 'Baptist Alley'   The attack on Seward has been all but written out of our history books, but in 1865 it was portrayed as an integral component of the plot against Lincoln, particularly during the show trial of the alleged conspirators. It is now mentioned only in passing, if at all. Which is probably because the story doesn't make a whole lot of sense.   In the home are: William Seward, the injured Secretary of State; William Bell, Seward's black servant; Frederick Seward, William's son as well as his Assistant Secretary of State; Major Augustus Seward, another son and a career Army officer (who will be promoted in a few weeks to lieutenant colonel); Private George Robinson, Seward's personal attendant (who will be promoted to sergeant in a few weeks); Emerick Hansell, a US State Department courier; Frances Seward, the secretary's wife (who will be dead very soon); Fanny Seward, his daughter (who will be dead fairly soon); and, finally, the wife of one of the Seward sons.   Payne of course is going it alone, just like Booth, for reasons that have apparently never required an explanation. The five able-bodied men in the house, at least a couple of whom are likely armed, will pose a physical challenge. The three women will pose less of a physical threat, but one or more of them are very likely to run out into the street to summon any nearby patrols. And just the fact that there are so many people in the way will make it extremely difficult for Powell to control the situation.    Another of Booth's paramours, this one unidentified   Paine's mission is not unlike Booth's; he must enter the building, work his way past any resistance to get to his target, take out his target, work his way back out of the building past any resistance, and then somehow find his way out of Washington. But unlike Booth, Payne won't have even a single bullet to work with. Instead, he is going in armed only with a bludgeon and a knife. And he'll be coming out with nothing but the clothes on his back.   Technically speaking, he will be carrying a gun, but it doesn't work and so is only useful as a bludgeon. In a city overflowing with guns, Paine has chosen to bring one that doesn't work. Which means that, luckily for the Sewards, no one is going to die.   Paine though is going to leave quite a trail of destruction once he enters the estate, which sits just a half-dozen blocks from Ford's Theater. Frederick Seward will be left gravely injured, with his head reportedly split open and his skull fractured in two places. Major Augustus Seward will also receive severe head injuries, with one report claiming that he was half scalped. Private Robinson will also be seriously wounded, with deep stab wounds to his chest. Emerick Hansell will receive at least one deep, very serious chest wound as well. Fanny Seward will be wounded as well, in some unspecified manner. And William Seward – who is lying in bed on his back, unable to defend himself – will be brutally stabbed about the head and neck, but will, despite his already weakened condition, miraculously survive.   **********************************************************   It is difficult to believe that the attack on Secretary of State Seward ever took place at all. Lewis Paine supposedly gravely wounded six people in hand-to-hand combat, four of them able-bodied men, and yet, as photos taken soon after his arrest just days later reveal, he didn't have so much as a scratch on him. He supposedly left his hat, gun and knife behind, creating a handy evidence trail, but why would he leave his only weapons behind? He also allegedly left a bloodstained coat with gloves and a fake moustache in the pocket in the woods just outside of DC. Lewis Paine was apparently a very considerate attempted assassin.      Lewis Paine, April 1865   The descriptions of the conditions of the victims came from the first three people to conveniently arrive at the crime scene: Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, and Surgeon General Joseph Barnes. You know, just your typical first responders. None of them reported seeing Augustus there. Stanton initially claimed that only William Seward, Fred Seward and George Robinson were injured; Augustus Seward, Emerick Hansell and Fanny Seward were later added to the victim list, apparently so that the prosecution would have suitable witnesses. It was an entire month before Fanny Seward came forward with her account of the attack.   Augustus was later presented at trial as both a victim of and an eyewitness to the attack – the attack that very likely didn't take place, in the home he wasn't actually in at the time. His testimony was wildly at odds with that of Robinson, with both men claiming that they had been in the room and personally witnessed the attack on William Seward. Not only did their accounts significantly differ, but neither really explained why it was that with the two of them in the room, and with Frederick and Hansell in the home as well, they were unable to defend the secretary.     This remarkable image of Paine, captured in April 1865, has been lovingly colorized   It is impossible to determine whether the alleged attack ever took place, but it appears extremely unlikely. It does not seem logistically possible for one barely armed man to have done what Paine is supposed to have done. And it doesn't seem physically possible for him to have done so without sustaining a single visible injury. There is no tangible evidence that Paine ever entered the home. The only 'evidence' that has ever existed is the dubious (and conflicting) accounts told by the alleged victims and by the high-ranking cabinet officials who just happened to be first on the scene.   Let's now briefly review the key elements of this story: two assassins; three targets; numerous people to get through to get to those targets; numerous other people to get by to flee the scene; a city essentially under martial law; and one – exactly one – bullet. Anyone see anything wrong with that scenario?   … to be continued   Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part III by Dave McGowan | Mar 16, 2014 Anyone notice anything peculiar about the two images of Lewis Powell in my last post? Anything at all? Other than, of course, the fact that one of them had been colorized, making it appear unsettlingly contemporary? Because they are, to be sure, very unusual images.   There's really nothing else like them in all of recorded history – except for, that is, the remarkable images that also exist of most of his alleged co-conspirators. And perhaps it is time for us to now meet those alleged conspirators, beginning with the rather dashing gentleman pictured below, Mr. Samuel Bland Arnold, who looks almost like he could be a 21st century actor posing for a publicity photo for his latest blockbuster film.     Arnold was thirty at the time of the assassination and was working as a commissary clerk at Fortress Monroe, Virginia. He was said to be a former Confederate soldier, though it seems very likely that he was actually a Union operative (as appears to be the case with almost all of Booth's alleged accomplices). The files of the Bureau of Military Justice (a misnomer if ever there was one) contain the following tidbits of information on Arnold:   "Samuel B. Arnold was born at Georgetown, D.C., of highly respectable parents … He was first sent to be educated at Georgetown College, from there he was sent to the Reverend J.H. Dashills, [in] Baltimore County, his parents having removed from Georgetown to Baltimore. He was one year in Rockingham County, Virginia, under the charge of the Reverend Mr. Gibbins, and afterward sent to Saint Timothy Hall, Catonsville, Maryland, and place[d] under the Rev. L. Vanbakelin."   The picture painted here is of a well educated young man who had a rather privileged upbringing in and around the nation's capital. Not at all the kind of guy you would expect to have donned a Confederate uniform, unless he did so as a covert Union operative. Arnold was convicted of complicity in the plot to kill Lincoln and was handed a life sentence by the military tribunal. He served only four years though before being pardoned by President Johnson and released in 1869. Arnold lived to the ripe old age of seventy-two, passing away on the autumnal equinox of 1906.   Next up is Michael O'Laughlin (or O'Laughlen – the two are used interchangeably throughout the literature on the assassination), who, like Arnold, was a ruggedly handsome, well dressed young man from a well-to-do family. Just twenty-four when Lincoln was shot, O'Laughlin had known Booth since childhood, when they had lived across the street from each other in Baltimore (Arnold had also been a childhood friend of Mr. Booth). The Bureau of Military Justice files reveal the following about O'Laughlin:   "Michael O'Laughlin was born in the City of Baltimore … He was educated at a School conducted by a highly respectable Teacher at the corner of Front and LaFayette Sts., and after leaving School learned the trade of ornamental Plaster work, and also acquired the art of Engraving. The company he was in the habit of associating with was not of a character that a person indisposed to evil would have made choice of. His appearance was generally of a genteel character."       In 1865, O'Laughlin was working for his older brother as a clerk in a Baltimore feed store. That brother, according to government files, was a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle. Testimony before the military tribunal indicated that Michael likely was as well. Convicted by that tribunal, O'Laughlin was given a life sentence, which proved to be a death sentence when he contracted yellow fever in prison and died, strangely enough, on or about the autumnal equinox of 1867. His remains are interred in the same Baltimore cemetery where Arnold and Booth can be found.   Like Arnold and O'Laughlin (and Booth), David Edgar Herold (frequently identified in print as David Herald) was a well educated young man from an upscale family. Herold was born in Maryland and raised in – where else? – Washington, DC. His father was the chief clerk at the Washington Navy Yard store – the same Washington Navy Yard whose guarded bridge Booth and Herold were inexplicably allowed to cross on the night of April 14, 1865.   Herold attended Georgetown College, followed by the Rittenhouse Academy and then the prestigious Charlotte Hall Military Academy. He later went to work for various pharmacists and doctors, including our old friend "Dr." Francis Tumblety. On one occasion in 1863, when he was dispatched to the White House to deliver a bottle of castor oil, Herold had the honor of personally meeting President Lincoln.\   Tried along with seven of his alleged co-conspirators, Herold was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. That sentence was carried out on July 7, 1865, just after Herold's twenty-third birthday. He is, as would be expected, buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, DC.   Thus far we have met four lads (Booth, Herold, McLaughlin, and Arnold) who all were raised in and lived and worked in the Baltimore/Washington DC area. Considering that the conspiracy to kill Lincoln, to the extent that it is acknowledged at all, is invariably cast as a Confederate conspiracy, there don't appear to have been too many southerners in the crowd. There was at least one though – our old friend Lewis Thornton Powell.   The youngest of the alleged conspirators – just twenty at the time of the assassination – Powell was also known as Lewis Paine, Lewis Payne, Reverend Wood, The Reverend, James Wood, Mosby, and Kincheloe, among other aliases. As his shadowy identities would seem to imply, he was by many accounts an intelligence operative. Raised in Alabama, Georgia and Florida, Powell was educated by his father, the Reverend George C. Powell. Lewis entered the service at a young age – either sixteen or seventeen, depending upon the source. Powell's two older brothers enlisted as well, with all three serving with the 2nd Florida Infantry. Lewis was the only one of the three to survive the Civil War. Wounded at Gettysburg in early July 1863, he was taken prisoner and sent to a POW hospital. Following his recovery, he was put to work as a male nurse in a hospital in Baltimore, from where he reportedly escaped, apparently by basically walking out the door.   After that, according to historian Theodore Roscoe (The Web of Conspiracy), his "movements are hard to follow." Author Jim Bishop added, in The Day Lincoln Was Shot, that "There is an unexplained hitch in his [military] records." According to various accounts, he went to work with the paramilitary forces serving under John Singleton Mosby. In January 1865, he turned up in a boardinghouse in Baltimore, Maryland and allegedly became a Lincoln assassination conspirator. On July 7, 1865, he was hanged.   There is scant evidence that Powell knew Booth at all, though an apocryphal tale is often told of a very young Lewis meeting Booth in a theater following a performance by the acclaimed actor. There doesn't appear to be any evidence at all linking him to the other alleged conspirators. He photographed really well though.   Moving back up north, we next meet the hapless Ned Spangler, also known as Ed Spangler, Edward Spangler, Edman Spangler, and Edmund Spangler. The oldest of the alleged male conspirators at thirty-nine, Spangler was a journeyman carpenter originally from Pennsylvania, though he had spent the majority of his life in the Baltimore area. During the Civil War, he was living in Washington, DC, where he was employed at Ford's Theater as a carpenter and stagehand. Spangler had met Booth many years earlier when he worked on the Booth family's Tudor mansion. In the aftermath of the Lincoln assassination, he was accused of holding Booth's horse and aiding and abetting the actor's escape from the theater. The charges though were dubious at best. Sentenced to a six-year prison term, the most lenient sentence handed down by the military tribunal, he was pardoned four years later by President Andrew Johnson. Spangler died on February 7, 1875, reportedly of tuberculosis.   Next up is the only foreign national in the group, George Andrew Atzerodt, who was brought over to America from Germany when he was eight. Raised in, of course, Maryland, Atzerodt and his brother owned a carriage repair shop where George worked as a painter. At the time of the assassination, he was twenty-nine.   The military tribunal maintained that Atzerodt had been assigned the task of assassinating newly-installed Vice President Andrew Johnson, but he had allegedly lost his nerve and failed to carry out the assignment. In truth, there is no real evidence that Johnson, who was likely involved or at least had knowledge of the plot, was ever targeted. As with Stanton, this was a case of the conspirators themselves claiming to be intended victims. Atzerodt was found guilty of his alleged crimes and was hanged on July 7, 1865.   The seventh of the alleged conspirators was Dr. Samuel Mudd, yet another Marylander. Like many of the others, Mudd was born into a large, well-to-do family and he was well educated, having graduated from both GeorgetownCollege in DC and the medical school at the University of Maryland in Baltimore. Mudd worked as both a country doctor and a tobacco farmer, and was reportedly a slave owner who harbored southern sympathies.   Mudd, thirty-two at the time, stood trial along with the others on charges of having aided and abetted Booth's plot and having offered medical aid to the injured actor. His actual role has been fiercely debated by mainstream historians, all of whom have grossly misrepresented the Lincoln assassination. Convicted by the tribunal, Mudd was sentenced to life in prison but was pardoned just four years later by Johnson.   Having now met seven of the nine people who stood trial as Booth's alleged co-conspirators, is there anything that stands out as unusual about the images adorning this post? Anything at all? And keep in mind that these are official booking photos, otherwise known as mugshots. But they certainly don't look like any other mugshots ever taken. We certainly have no such images of Lee Harvey Oswald. Or Sirhan Sirhan. Or Charles Guiteau. Or Leon Czolgosz. Or James Earl Ray. Or John Hinckley. Or Mark David Chapman. Or any other alleged assassin or attempted assassin. Or anyone ever arrested on suspicion of having committed any crime.   No one else, you see, had one of the top professional photographers of the era come by to take their mugshots. No one else had the benefit of dramatic backdrops, professional lighting, and flattering poses and camera angles. And no one else was photographed by the very same guy, Alexander Gardner, who was long credited as being the guy who took the last known images of President Abraham Lincoln.   When called upon to photograph the people accused of plotting against that president, Gardner certainly rose to the occasion. The images of the alleged Lincoln conspirators are arguably the finest work that the Civil War photographer ever did. The portraits of the conspirators' victim, taken not long before Lincoln's death, are rather lackluster in comparison.     The very same Alexander Gardner was also the guy who, just weeks after lovingly photographing the alleged conspirators, photographed several of those same conspirators being led to the gallows and hanged. And the guy who officially photographed Lincoln's funeral. And the guy who took the only image of what was claimed to be the body of John Wilkes Booth, after the actor had allegedly been gunned down and transported back to Washington.     Left to right: Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt   That image though won't be displayed here, for reasons explained by author W.C. Jameson (Return of Assassin): "Following the work of the identification committee, the body was photographed by Alexander Gardner, one of the members. Gardner conducted his work in the presence of War Department detective James A. Wardell. Gardner was allowed to take only one photograph and was quickly hastened to a darkroom to develop it. Wardell stood by his side the entire time, and when the picture was finished, Wardell took possession of it, along with the plate … Moments later, Lafayette Baker took the photographic plate from Wardell. In response to subsequent inquiries, the government denied that any photographs were ever taken of the body … To this day, no one knows what became of either the picture or the plate."   Theodore Roscoe adds that, "Undoubtedly Gardner gave the glass plate to Lafayette Baker or to Stanton. But the Secret Service Chief made no mention of it in his history. Stanton never mentioned it. War Department records are absolutely silent on the subject. The photograph never reached public domain."   Nothing unusual about any of that. Returning now to the collection of the world's most glamorous mugshots, it should be noted that there are, beyond their mere existence, other curiosities concerning these photos. Like the fact that the photo of Dr. Mudd that was officially released, and presented above, isn't actually Dr. Mudd at all. It appears to be Hartmann Richter, a cousin of George Atzerodt who was never charged with any complicity in the assassination plot. The real Dr. Mudd is pictured below.       And then there is the guy in the next image, officially photographed as a conspirator yet never charged, tried or even identified. The government just pretended as though he never existed. The appearance of the alleged conspirators in these striking images stands in stark contrast to their treatment throughout their confinement, which can only be described as barbaric. The suspects' ankles and wrists were kept shackled at all times. They were forced to wear specially-designed heavy leather hoods at all times other than when they were in court. The hoods were very tightly fit and featured pads that put tremendous pressure on the prisoners' eyes, causing intense pain in addition to subjecting the wearers to extreme and prolonged sensory deprivation. Some of the prisoners were also fitted with iron collars attached to a heavy ball and chain. These also had to be worn at all times.   All suspects were confined to tiny solitary cells outfitted with just a thin straw mattress, a worn army blanket, and an open bucket to use as a toilet. They were allowed no visitors and their guards were even forbidden from speaking to them. Armed sentries kept watch at all times to ensure that the prisoners had no human interaction whatsoever. Each suspect was assigned to a cluster of three cells, insuring that they had no neighbors to interact with. It was widely rumored that they were being tortured in more overt ways as well, which was undoubtedly the case.   No attorneys were provided for the defendants; they had to retain their own counsel, despite being completely cut off from the outside world. Consequently, some of them began the proceedings with no representation. Even after obtaining counsel, they were not allowed to have any private consultations with their attorneys. And they were not allowed to testify or speak in court at all, nor could any statements made by them be introduced.   But other than all that – and numerous other factors, which will be discussed later – the conspirators were given a fair trial. Let's now close out this edition by meeting the last of the alleged conspirators who were tried by military tribunal – the one who, without explanation, was not photographed by Mr. Gardner. That would be, of course, Mary Surratt, the first woman to be executed in these United States. Surratt was, shockingly, a native Marylander from a rather wealthy family. Born sometime in the early 1820s (no one seems to know exactly when), she was educated at a private Catholic boarding school in Alexandria, Virginia, at a time when, as Theodore Roscoe noted, "higher learning for females was frowned upon as radical." At fifteen (or sixteen, or nineteen), she married John Surratt, with whom she had three offspring, Isaac, Anna, and John, Jr.   The Surratts did well for themselves for a number of years. At one time, John owned as many as 1,200 acres of land and a number of businesses, including a hotel, a tavern and a boardinghouse. Much of that land straddled the border between DC and Maryland, just thirteen miles from downtown Washington, DC. The settlement there soon came to be known as Surrattsville, which is frequently claimed to have been heavily involved in Confederate espionage activities.   Spymaster Lafayette Baker, accompanied by some 300 Union soldiers, converged on Surrattsville in late 1861 to launch a full investigation of the Surratt family and various others suspected of involvement in the Confederate underground. According to pseudo-historian Roy Chamlee, Jr. (Lincoln's Assassins), Baker's team unearthed compelling evidence of a vast network of covert Confederate operations. They made though only a few token arrests, which, given that thousands elsewhere were rounded up by Baker's thugs in mass arrests based on far less evidence than what was found in Surrattsville, strongly suggests that the operations in Surrattsville weren't actually aimed at aiding the south,   In any event, John Surratt died in 1862 and his widow fell upon hard times. She was nevertheless able to finance a costly move to the heart of DC in late 1864, taking possession of a boardinghouse just four blocks from Ford's Theater. It was in that boardinghouse that Booth and the others allegedly plotted first the kidnapping of, and then the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Found guilty by the military tribunal, Mary Surratt was hanged on July 7, 1865.   … to be continued Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part IV by Dave McGowan | Apr 7, 2014 In the last installment, we met the seven men and one woman who faced trial by military tribunal for their alleged roles in the plot to assassinate President Abraham Lincoln. But there were two others involved in the supposed conspiracy: the mastermind and assassin, John Wilkes Booth, and his alleged right-hand man, John Harrison Surratt, Jr., son of the executed Mary Surratt.   Like most of his alleged co-conspirators, Surratt was a well educated, good looking young man from a well-to-do Northern family. He was born in April 1844 to John and Mary Surratt, and was baptized at St. Peter's Church in – where else? – Washington, DC. He was educated at St. Charles College in, naturally enough, Maryland. At the tender age of eighteen, following the death of his father, Surratt became the Postmaster of Surratsville. Beyond that, little is known about the early life of the man cast by the government as Booth's primary accomplice. As Theodore Roscoe wrote in The Web of Conspiracy:   "Official records on John Harrison Surratt, Jr., are similarly devoid of depth … He passes through Washington like a shadow. His appearances in the house on H Street are shadowy. Now he is glimpsed in Richmond. Next he is glimpsed in Canada. The authorities can never quite lay their hands on him, and neither can the historians. Of the immediate members of Booth's coterie, least is known about John Harrison Surratt, Jr."     John Harrison Surratt, Jr., as sketched by an artist for Harper's Weekly   Roscoe claims, as have many other historians, that Surratt "operated as spy and as message-bearer, conveying Confederate dispatches between Richmond, Washington, and Montreal, Canada. By the time Mrs. Surratt's boardinghouse was well established in Washington, John H. Surratt had become a well paid and highly adept operator in the Secret Service of the C.S.A. [Confederate States of America]" Maybe so. It seems far more likely though, given various facts of the case, that he was actually a Union operative posing as a Confederate operative. Or that the two 'sides' were actually one and the same, as seems likely.   Of the ten alleged conspirators, Surratt, who celebrated his 21st birthday just one day before Lincoln was gunned down, was the only one not to be captured or killed in the massive manhunt that followed the assassination. He quickly made his way to Canada, where he found sanctuary with a Catholic priest during the time that his mother was being tried, sentenced and hanged. He left Canada in early September, some two months after the executions had been carried out. From that point on, the US government appears to have been well aware of his movements and whereabouts.     John Surratt in his Papal Zouave uniform   On March 4, 1867, the Washington Daily Morning Chronicle summarized the findings of an investigation by the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives as follows: "It appears that Surratt sailed from Canada in September 1865, and landed in Liverpool on the 27th of the same month; that the fact of his landing was communicated to Secretary Seward by the American vice consul, Mr. Wilding. No steps were taken by the President or Secretary of State to secure his arrest. No demand was made upon England for his return to this country, nor is there any evidence of the procurement or attempted procurement of an indictment against him."   Surratt himself would later say that, "While I was in London, Liverpool and Birmingham, our consuls at those ports knew who I was and advised our State Department of my whereabouts, but nothing was done." Curious behavior indeed for a government that had, just months earlier, aggressively prosecuted and executed lesser conspirators.   On November 24, 1865, two months into Surratt's leisurely stay in England, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton abruptly withdrew the standing reward on Surratt's head, clearly signaling to Europe and elsewhere that the US wasn't all that interested in pursuing the capture and prosecution of the alleged conspirator. Stanton, needless to say, offered no explanation for his unusual actions.   In April 1866, Surratt sailed from England to Italy, arriving in Rome, where he was almost immediately assigned a position with the Pope's elite Papal Zouave military guard. On April 21, a fellow Zouave, Henri de Sainte-Marie, who happened to be an old friend from Maryland, informed America's minister to Rome, General Rufus King, of Surratt's whereabouts and true identity. A Cardinal Antonelli explained to King that "if the American government desired the surrender of the criminal there would be no difficulty in the way." The US government, nevertheless, chose to look the other way.   Returning once again to the summary of the findings of the House Committee, we find that "news of [Surratt's] presence in Rome did reach the ears of minister King. He was informed by another than the Secretary of State that Surratt was in the military service of the Pope, and communicated the fact by letter, dated August 8, 1866, to his department. Notwithstanding this, no steps were taken to identify or secure the arrest of the supposed conspirator and assassin …" [emphasis added]   No explanation was given, of course, for the nearly four-month delay in drafting and sending the letter. On November 11, 1866, after Surratt had been going about his business in Rome for some seven months, making no effort to disguise himself, Papal authorities ordered his arrest. He allegedly then leapt from a cliff and made his escape, somehow supposedly surviving a 100-foot drop and evading at least 50 soldiers who were in hot pursuit within minutes. He then casually made his way across Italy, keeping a low profile by continuing to wear the garishly colored uniform of the Papal Zouave.     Barracks at Veroli, Italy, from where John Surrat purportedly escaped   After making his way to Naples, where he was sheltered by the local police and allowed to sleep at the station as a non-paying guest for three nights, he booked passage first to Malta and then to Alexandria, Egypt. On November 27, 1866, he was finally arrested by US authorities. It was almost another full month though before he was dispatched back to the US aboard the Swatara, a US Navy vessel, which set sail on the winter solstice, December 21, 1866.   That return voyage took unusually long to reach the states, nearly a month and a half. Had a paddleboat been available, Washington likely would have opted to use that. Upon reaching US shores, the vessel was delayed for another few weeks while the crew waited for ice to melt on the Potomac. There were, of course, other ports available from which Surratt could have been quickly transported by train to Washington, but authorities chose to delay his arrival for as long as possible.   As researcher Vaughan Shelton (Mask for Treason) wrote, "When the papal government in Rome finally forced the issue by arresting Surratt, every possible tactic was used to delay his return." Otto Eisenschiml (In the Shadow of Lincoln's Death) concurred, noting that "Stanton had tried his utmost to keep Surratt from being brought back at all …"   On February 4, 1867, the Grand Jury of the District of Columbia indicted John Surratt, who was still being held aboard the Swatara at the mouth of the Potomac. On February 19, the Swatara finally anchored at the Washington Navy Yard and Surratt set foot on US soil for the first time in nearly two years. A bench warrant for his arrest was issued that same day. Four days later, on February 23, Surratt was brought to court to enter a plea.      Lead defense attorney Joseph H. Bradley   Co-counsel Richard T. Merrick   On April 18, 1867, Surratt's defense attorneys filed a motion to set a date for the start of the trial, saying they were fully prepared to proceed.  On that very same day, the district attorney's office filed a motion for a continuance. It was just the first of many attempts by the state to delay the onset of the trial. The New York Herald reported, on May 19, 1867, that the "prisoner's legal representatives have over and over again reported themselves ready, but, contrary to the general ruling, the prosecution, after six months of preparation, has never yet been able to say, 'We are prepared to proceed with the trial.'" Ten days later, the Baltimore Sun added that it "is hinted that, for reasons not made public, the trial of Surratt is not at all desirable."   The question that most obviously comes to mind throughout this sordid chapter of US history is why the government suddenly lost the desire to aggressively pursue and prosecute the last alleged Lincoln conspirator? The primary reason is that, with the war over, Washington no longer had any justification for seeking 'justice' through a military tribunal and would have to rely instead on civilian courts. And that meant that the proceedings couldn't be controlled and corrupted to nearly the extent that they had been throughout the first mock trial.   That presented Washington with a huge problem. Without the muzzling of the defendant, and without the wholesale introduction of perjured testimony and manufactured evidence, and with the requirement that actual rules of law be followed, the state had little chance for a conviction. And given that eight others had already been either executed or exiled to America's version of Siberia, despite the fact that they had played lesser roles in the alleged conspiracy, it wasn't going to look very good to have John Surratt walk out of the courtroom a free man.   In addition, the government had pulled out all the stops to lay the assassination to rest as quickly as possible. The other alleged conspirators had been rounded up, indicted, tried, convicted, sentenced, and executed/imprisoned in less than three months, primarily because Washington had a vested interest in wrapping things up as quickly as possible, before too many troubling questions could be raised. The last thing they now wanted to do was reopen the case to public scrutiny.   Given little choice though in the matter, the case proceeded to trial in June 1867. And true to form, the state did its very best to rig the proceedings. As America's first Secret Service chief, William P. Wood, later wrote, Surratt was "confronted with an abundance of perjured testimony." He was also confronted with an abundance of bogus evidence, including a document that had supposedly been in the water for six weeks before being recovered, but which showed no signs of exposure whatsoever.   And then there were the laughably biased jury instructions delivered by presiding Judge George Fisher, which kicked off with the immortal words: "Whoso sheddeth man's blood by man shall his blood be shed. So spake the Almighty." One would have to search far and wide through the annals of American jurisprudence to find a more wildly inappropriate set of jury instructions.      Presiding Judge George P. Fisher   To insure that the trial was properly rigged, Secretary of State William Seward hired Edwards Pierrepont, an old friend of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, to assist the prosecution, although neither the State Department nor the War Department should have had anything to do with what was ostensibly a civil trial. Pierrepont was a descendant of James Pierepont, a cofounder of Yale University. Also hired by Seward, to assist Pierrepont, was Albert G. Riddle. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles' diary would later reveal that Riddle "had been employed by Seward to hunt up, or manufacture, testimony against Surratt."   One of the most bizarre aspects of the Surratt trial was the testimony delivered by our old friend Henry Rathbone, who was called to the stand, as he had been at the military trial, to provide eyewitness testimony as to the shooting of Lincoln. Although it was not commented upon at the time, or for decades after, Rathbone was clearly not spontaneously recalling events as they had happened, but rather was reciting his testimony from a memorized script.   That script appears to have been created on April 17, 1865, two days after Lincoln died, when Rathbone was purportedly deposed. A portion of that alleged deposition reads as follows: "That on April 14th, 1865, at about 20 minutes past 8 o'clock in the evening, he, with Miss Clara H. Harris, left his residence, at the corner of Fifteenth and H Streets, and joined the President and Mrs. Lincoln, and went with them in their carriage to Ford's Theater, in Tenth Street … When the party entered the box, a cushioned armchair was standing at the end of the box farthest from the stage and nearest the audience … When the second scene of the third act was being performed, and while this deponent was intently observing the proceedings upon the stage, with his back toward the door, he heard the discharge of a pistol behind him, and looking around, saw, through the smoke, a man between the door and the President … This deponent instantly sprang toward him and seized him; he wrested himself from the grasp, and made a violent thrust at the breast of deponent with a large knife. Deponent parried the blow by striking it up, and received a wound several inches deep in his left arm, between the elbow and the shoulder …"   One month later, on May 15, 1865, Rathbone testified before the military tribunal. With the exception of delivering his testimony in the first person, it was a nearly verbatim recital of the script prepared the month before, and went a little something like this: "On the evening of the 14th of April last, at about 20 minutes past 8 o'clock, I, in company with Miss Harris, left my residence at the corner of Fifteenth and H Streets, and joined the President and Mrs. Lincoln, and went with them, in their carriage, to Ford's Theater in Tenth Street … On entering the box there was a large armchair that was placed nearest the audience, farthest from the stage … When the second scene of the third act was being performed, and while I was intently observing the proceedings upon the stage, with my back towards the door, I heard the discharge of a pistol behind me, and, looking round, saw, through the smoke, a man between the door and the President … I instantly sprang towards him, and seized him. He wrested himself from my grasp, and made a violent thrust at my breast with a large knife. I parried the blow by striking it up, and received a wound several inches deep in my left arm, between the elbow and the shoulder …"   A little over two years later, on June 17, 1867, Rathbone dusted off his script and delivered the following testimony at the trial of John Surratt: "On the evening of the 14th of April, at about 20 minutes past 8, I, in company with Miss Harris, left my residence at the corner of Fifteenth and H streets, and joined the President and Mrs. Lincoln, and went with them in their carriage to Ford's Theater, on Tenth street … On entering the box there was a large armchair placed nearest the audience, and furthest from the stage … When the second scene of the third act was being performed, and while I was intently observing the performance on the stage, I heard the report of a pistol from behind me, and on looking round saw dimly through the smoke the form of a man between the President and the door … I immediately sprung towards him and seized him. He wrested himself from my grasp, and at the same time made a violent thrust at me with a large knife. I parried the blow by striking it up, and received it on my left arm, between the elbow and the shoulder, and received a deep wound …"     State Department/War Department representatives Edwards Pierrepont      Albert G. Riddle   In the end though, the government's brazen attempts to corrupt the proceedings failed to pay dividends and the jury was left hung 8-4 in favor of acquittal. Even with the obviously perjured testimony, the manufactured evidence, and the wildly inappropriate jury instructions, the state was only able to secure four votes for conviction. And Surratt had found himself a number of new fans. As Eisenschiml noted, "The ladies of Washington considered him quite attractive and thronged the courtroom."   John Harrison Surratt walked out of court a free man, and the state quietly opted not to further pursue the charges. Five years later, he married Mary Victorine Hunter, a second cousin of none other than Francis Scott Key, whose son's murderer, it will be recalled, was defended by Edwin Stanton. Key's great-great-granddaughter Pauline Potter, by the way, later married Baron Philippe de Rothschild, of the infamous Rothschild banking family.   Surratt lived to the ripe old age of 72, passing away, curiously enough, on April 21, 1916, precisely 50 years to the day from when he had been identified in Rome as a member of the Papal Zouave. It is said that he had penned a biography, but he supposedly opted to burn it a few days before his death. In a similar vein, Robert Todd Lincoln is said to have burned all his father's private papers shortly before his own death – because, I suppose, one wouldn't want the truth about the assassination of one's father to reach the public domain. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part V by Dave McGowan | Apr 19, 2014 Defense attorney Joseph H. Bradley, whom we met in the last installment, had this to say to the jury and spectators at John Surratt's trial: "Who was John Wilkes Booth? … He was a man of polished exterior, pleasing address, highly respectable in every regard, received into the best circles of society; his company sought after; exceedingly bold, courteous, and considered generous to a fault; a warm and liberal-hearted friend, a man who had obtained a reputation upon the stage."   The woman who once reported him for rape in Philadelphia, and the irate, jealous husband who once severely throttled him in Syracuse, New York, might disagree.   Francis Wilson, one of Booth's biographers (John Wilkes Booth: Fact and Fiction of Lincoln's Assassination), posed the following question: "How was it possible for Booth to obtain such power over a fellow human being as to command him to perform an act of murder and to know that that command would be enthusiastically obeyed?" A little over a century after the assassination of Lincoln, prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi would ponder the very same question about a guy by the name of Charlie Manson: "I tend to think that there is something more, some missing link that enabled him to so rape and bastardize the minds of his followers that they would go against the most ingrained of all commandments, Thou shalt not kill, and willingly, even eagerly, murder at his command."   A friend of Booth's from childhood, John Deery, said that the John Wilkes Booth that he knew "cast a spell over most men with whom he came in contact, and I believe all women without exception."     Junius Brutus Booth, father of John Wilkes Booth   So who was this charismatic enigma known as John Wilkes Booth – the man known to history as possibly the most famous assassin who ever lived? Just about everyone knows that he was an actor, one of the finest and arguably the most popular of his generation. But he was much more than just that, a fact obscured by the century-and-a-half focus on John Wilkes Booth the actor. In reality, John Wilkes Booth, and the Booth family in general, were very deeply tied to the power structures in Washington and London, and had been for a very, very long time. And they still are today.   Booth's most famous ancestor was undoubtedly his namesake, John Wilkes, who lived from October 17, 1725 until December 26, 1797. Throughout his life, Wilkes served as a Member of Parliament, a judge, a journalist and essayist, and the Lord Mayor of London. A revered statesman, Wilkes was also a member of the Hellfire Club and a noted libertine (other notable libertines throughout history include the Marquis de Sade, Aleister Crowley, and Anton LaVey). That would be the same Hellfire Club that included as a member a 'Founding Father" by the name of Benjamin Franklin. And that would be the same Benjamin Franklin whose London home from that era yielded the remains of at least ten bodies, six of them children.     Lord Mayor of London John Wilkes   It was the Hellfire Club, by the way, that first coined the phrase "Do what thou wilt," which was later appropriated by Aleister Crowley. And it was the Hellfire Club that was widely rumored during its heyday to be conducting black masses and other occult/Satanic rituals, along with drunken orgies and various other acts of debauchery.   John Wilkes was also notable for being considered during his lifetime the ugliest man in all of England. He never though suffered from a shortage of beautiful female companions. Aside from a nine-year marriage, Wilkes remained single for his 72 years on this planet and was considered quite the ladies man, fathering an unknown number of children. Like his descendent and namesake, Wilkes apparently had a knack for "cast[ing] a spell" over women.     Two other of John Wilkes Booth's famous ancestors were Henry Booth, the 1st Earl of Warrington, who lived from 1652 to 1694, and his son George Booth, who lived from 1675 to 1758 and succeeded his father as the 2nd (and last) Earl of Warrington. At various times during his life, Henry Booth served as a Member of Parliament, a member of the Privy Council of England, a noted writer, and a mayor.   John Wilkes Booth was also descended from Barton Booth, who lived from 1681 to 1733 and who was described by one biographer as the "most popular actor with the English royalty known to history." Many generations later, namesake Sydney Barton Booth, a son of Junius Brutus Booth, Jr., would become an actor and writer of some renown before passing away in 1937.       Henry and George Booth, the 1st and 2nd Earls of Warrington   The alleged assassin's grandfather was Richard Booth, an eccentric English barrister with a fondness for alcohol – a fondness that would be shared by his son, Junius Brutus Booth, and his grandson, John Wilkes Booth. Junius was born in London in 1796 and was performing on stage by the age of seventeen. At nineteen, he married Marie Christine Adelaide Delannoy. Less than five months later, she bore him his first child, who died in infancy, as would a number of Junius Brutus Booth's offspring.   In June 1821, at the age of twenty-five, Junius set sail for America with his mistress, Mary Ann Holmes, leaving behind his wife and only surviving child, Richard Junius Booth. Junius and Mary Ann would pose as man and wife for the next thirty years, producing no fewer than ten illegitimate offspring, four of whom didn't make it through childhood. The pair weren't actually married until 1851, the year Junius finally divorced his actual wife, and were married just one year before Junius passed away in November 1852.   During his lifetime, Junius was considered to be one of the finest actors of his generation. He was also regarded as a playwright, scholar, philosopher and linguist. Named for one of the most notorious assassins of all time, Junius once set a fine example for son John by sending a letter to then-President Andrew Jackson threatening to slit his throat and/or have him burned at the stake. And he thoughtfully signed that letter and included a return address. It was, nevertheless, dismissed as either a hoax or a joke.   John Brown   Junius and Mary Ann purchased a 150-acre estate in Maryland that would ultimately feature a large pool, stables, and a Gothic home known as Tudor Hall, listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Junius began construction on the home shortly before his death and so never lived there, though his offspring, including John Wilkes Booth, did. Ned Spangler, it will be recalled, was involved in the construction of the home.   John Wilkes Booth, the ninth of Junius and Mary Ann's ten offspring, was born on May 10, 1838. A well educated young man, he was regarded as an excellent horseman and marksman as well as a talented athlete. Like his father, he made his acting debut at seventeen, in an 1855 production of Richard III. By 1861, he was one of the most popular actors in America and there was considerable demand for his services.     Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth at Lincoln's second inaugural address   On December 2, 1859, John Wilkes Booth was among the soldiers standing guard on the scaffold when probable agent provocateur John Brown was hanged. Booth was not a soldier though – he purportedly either borrowed or stole a militia uniform and posed as a soldier to secure the position. On March 4, 1865, Booth found himself prominently placed among the onlookers at Lincoln's second inaugural address. He was there as a guest of US Senator John P. Hale.   Unknown at the time was that Booth was secretly engaged to Hale's daughter, Lucy Hale. Senator Hale had worked closely with fellow Senator William Seward before Seward's appointment as Secretary of State. Notably, Hale was a northern senator, representing New Hampshire, and he was known for his staunchly abolitionist views. It makes perfect sense then that his daughter would be engaged to an alleged Confederate operative.     Senator John P. Hale   During John Wilkes Booth's lifetime, there was another member of the Booth/Wilkes clan who achieved a considerable amount of public notoriety. Charles Wilkes was a US naval officer who ultimately attained the rank of rear admiral, as well as a celebrated explorer who led the United States Exploring Expedition from 1838 to 1842. He was also a great-nephew of John Wilkes, making him a blood relative of John Wilkes Booth and his numerous siblings.   Charles Wilkes was raised by his aunt, Elizabeth Ann Seton, who was a woman of considerable social prominence who later became the first American-born woman to be canonized by the Catholic Church. In the 1820s, Wilkes counted among his associates a genocidal Grand Master Mason by the name of Andrew Jackson – the same Andrew Jackson who was also, by some reports, a friend of Junius Brutus Booth, the guy who 'jokingly' threatened to assassinate him.     Charles Wilkes   Many years later, another member of the Booth clan, Theresa Cara Booth, was born on September 23, 1954. Theresa is a direct descendent of Algernon Booth, Junius Brutus Booth's brother and John Wilkes Booth's uncle. She became an attorney in 1976 and a member of the Queen's Counsel in 1995. Two years later, Theresa Booth – better known as Cherie Blair, wife of Tony Blair – became the First Lady of Downing Street. Nothing unusual about that, I suppose.   In the aftermath of the Lincoln assassination, actors were viewed with considerable suspicion across the country. The entire cast of Our American Cousin was arrested and numerous other productions closed for a time due to the lynch-mob mentality that was sweeping the nation. No one was above suspicion and, as previously noted, more than 2,000 people were arrested as possible co-conspirators. Those with only the loosest connections to the accused coup plotters were scooped up and held for varying lengths of time.   Two of John Wilkes Booth's brothers, Edwin and Junius Brutus, Jr., were fellow actors. Clearly then they had two big strikes against them, which should have put them at the very top of the government's round-up list. And yet not a single member of the Booth clan was arrested in the frenzy of arrests and accusations. Not one. It always helps to have friends in high places.     The Op-Ed page of the Los Angeles Times apparently now operates in part as a forum for unpaid advertisements for intelligence agency-approved works of fiction. I say that because just a few days ago that page featured what was essentially a half-page ad for Jeff Bauman's hopelessly fraudulent account of the Boston Marathon bombings. And yesterday that same page featured a barely disguised advertisement for a book written by a professional liar by the name of Mel Ayton.   Ayton has apparently penned a whole series of disinformational books on various presidential assassinations and attempted assassinations. His latest, Hunting the President: Threats, Plots and Assassination Attempts – From FDR to Obama, carries on in that fine tradition. The following paragraph is from his wildly inaccurate Op-Ed piece:   "Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated. But the motivations that drove his assassin were unfortunately not unique. Understanding the nature of those who want to kill a president goes considerably further toward explaining assassinations than looking to fanciful conspiracy theories."     Cherie Blair, aka Theresa Cara Booth   Let's now take a peek at what "fanciful" theory it is that Ayton is pitching: "Booth's desire for fame and recognition is a common theme among assassins. In researching a book on presidential killers and would-be killers, I found that they tended to share certain personality traits. While some had been treated for mental illness, an even more predominant characteristic is that many of them were disillusioned with and resentful of American society after a lifetime of failure. And most of them also had a burning desire for notoriety. Killing an American president, most would-be assassins believed, would win them a place in history, making a 'somebody' out of a 'nobody.'"   Every single word of the preceding paragraph can only be described as complete and utter bullshit. Booth already had fame and recognition beyond his wildest dreams. He was far from being a "nobody." To the contrary, he was making upwards of $20,000 a year, a staggering amount in those days, and had the love, respect and admiration of men and women all across the country. He was wealthy, good looking, supremely talented, and had lived a very charmed life. And given that he was only twenty-six at the time of the assassination, it is hardly accurate to say that he had faced a "lifetime" of failure. In truth, he had never known failure at all in his short life.   Compulsive liar Ayton's body of work is, unfortunately, typical of what has been written about Lincoln and his alleged assassin over the last 149 years. Listed below, in order of the date of release, are some of the more honest books that have been published (some decidedly better than others).   Bates, Finis L.  The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth, J.L Nichols & Company, 1907 Wilson, Francis  John Wilkes Booth: Fact and Fiction of Lincoln's Assassination, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929 Eisenschiml, Otto  Why Was Lincoln Murdered?, Little, Brown and Company, 1937 Eisenschiml, Otto  In the Shadow of Lincoln's Death, Wilfred Funk, Inc., 1940 Roscoe, Theodore  The Web of Conspiracy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959 Shelton, Vaughan  Mask for Treason: The Lincoln Murder Trial, Stackpole Books, 1965 Balsiger, David and Charles Sellier, Jr.  The Lincoln Conspiracy, Schick Sunn Classic Books, 1977 Jameson, W.C.  Return of Assassin: John Wilkes Booth, Republic of Texas Press, 1999 Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part VI by Dave McGowan | May 7, 2014 "The assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, only days after the end of the war, was a terrible tragedy. Much has been speculated about the events leading up to the murder and immediately afterward, but few people know what really happened." So says Bill O'Reilly on page 1 of his tome on the Lincoln assassination. What he doesn't tell readers is that after reading his novelized account, they will still have no clue what really happened.   One thing that O'Reilly opts to leave out of his book entirely is the mockery of a trial held for the alleged conspirators. After spending the first 276 pages of his book covering the period from April 1, 1865 to April 26, 1865 (the day Booth was allegedly gunned down at Garrett's barn), O'Reilly then abruptly jumps ahead to July 7, 1865, the day four of the alleged conspirators were hanged. Apparently nothing of significance happened in May or June of 1865. Or maybe it is best not to shine too bright a light on one of the most sordid chapters of US history.   US Navy Secretary Gideon Welles is on record as stating that Secretary of War Edwin Stanton wanted the alleged conspirators to be "tried and executed before President Lincoln was buried." Convictions were obviously a given. Lincoln was laid to rest on May 4, 1865, nineteen days after he died and just before the trial of the conspirators began, thwarting Stanton's wishes, but 'justice' was dispensed very quickly nonetheless.   Stanton favored a military trial, a course of action opposed by various other members of the Lincoln cabinet, including both Welles and former Attorney General Edward Bates, who noted that "if the offenders are done to death by that tribunal, however truly guilty, they will pass for martyrs with half the world." Many believed that a military trial would be unconstitutional given that all of the defendants were civilians. Stanton nevertheless prevailed.   It would in fact be later determined that the proceedings had been unconstitutional, both because the suspects were subjected to military 'justice,' and because they were denied their right to individual trials. That ruling would not, however, resurrect the five alleged conspirators who paid with their lives.   While awaiting what passed for a trial, the prisoners were held in appalling conditions aboard two ironclad vessels, the Montauk and the Saugus (except for Mudd and Surratt, who were reportedly held elsewhere and spared the tortuous hoods). Very special attention appears to have been paid to Lewis Powell. Throughout his confinement, Powell was personally guarded by Thomas T. Eckert, which is undoubtedly the only time in the nation's history that a sitting Assistant Secretary of War served as a lowly prison guard. Even more curiously, despite the fact that Powell was kept shackled, hooded, isolated, and otherwise deprived, he was nevertheless allowed to keep a knife while imprisoned. And false reports were circulated indicating that he was suicidal.    Thomas T. Eckert   It is perfectly clear, in retrospect, that the government had contingency plans to have Powell 'suicided' if necessary.   On May 1, 1865, newly-installed President Andrew Johnson ordered that the eight alleged conspirators face a nine-man military tribunal. The members of that tribunal – seven generals and two colonels – were all handpicked by Stanton. All but a couple were unknown to the public and none of them knew anything about the so-called 'rule of law' or about evidentiary or procedural rules. That didn't prove to be a problem though – they just made up the tribunal rules as they went along.   As Vaughan Shelton wrote back in 1965, "All but one or two were nearly as unknown then as they are now. There was not a noteworthy war record in the whole group. In fact the two whose names might be recognized by the average reader – Major General David Hunter, presiding officer, and Major General Lew Wallace (later author of Ben Hur) – had attained rank by political connections, and their names had been associated with military defeats throughout the four-year contest. All appeared to be qualified largely by their prejudices, total ignorance of the law, and subservience to the will of the prosecutors. It was common talk in Washington that the military commission was assembled for the purpose of convicting the accused persons – not to weigh the merits of their cases."   Besides being completely unqualified to sit in judgment of the accused, the panel had something else in common, as various photographs reveal: many of them, maybe all of them, were Freemasons. As were the prosecutors. And at least some of the defense attorneys. And Edwin Stanton. And Lafayette Baker. And John Wilkes Booth. And seemingly just about everyone else who played a prominent role in the assassination conspiracy and cover-up. And many of the generals who directed the action on the battlefields of the Civil War. On both sides.     Confederate General Albert Pike     Seated on the panel were Major General David "Black Dave" Hunter, Brigadier General Albion Parris Howe, Lieutenant Colonel David Ramsey Clendenin, Brigadier General Thomas Maley Harris, Brevet Brigadier General James Adams Ekin, Major General Lew Wallace, Brevet Colonel Charles Henry Tompkins, Brigadier General Robert Sanford Foster, and Brevet Major General August Valentine Kautz. The lead prosecutor was Brigadier General Joseph Holt, then the Judge Advocate General of the United States Army and a former Secretary of War. Joining him as Special Judge Advocates were John Armor Bingham, a US Representative from Ohio and a future US Ambassador to Japan, and Brevet Brigadier General Henry Lawrence Burnett. Both Bingham and Burnett were appointed, of course, by Edwin Stanton.      Pretty Masons all in a row: the nine tribunal members and three prosecutors   Shockingly enough, the assembled panel of 'judges' showed extreme bias throughout the seven-week proceedings. That bias was revealed, for example, by the jurists' handling of objections. The defense attorneys, most of whom appear to have actually been working for the state, lodged only twelve objections, all of which were overruled. Prosecutors, on the other hand, voiced fifty-four objections, fifty-one of which were sustained.   The prisoners were arraigned on May 10, 1865, just one day after the charges against them had been read (Holt wanted those charges withheld from the press and public). Two days later, on May 12, testimony began. The defendants had been given just three days to obtain legal counsel, which they had to do while being quite literally muzzled. Ultimately assembled for the defense were Captain William Doster, Frederick Stone, Thomas Ewing, Jr., Walter Smith Cox, and Colonel Frederick Aiken.   Three members of that group appear to have been richly rewarded for their 'service' to country. Just two years after the 'trial,' Stone became a US Representative from Maryland. Ewing also joined the US Congress, representing a district in Ohio. Cox became a federal judge and, perhaps quite tellingly, presided at the trial of alleged presidential assassin Charles Guiteau just a couple years after being seated.     Defense attorney Frederick Stone   Aiken, who represented Mary Surratt after the curious withdrawal of her first attorney, Reverdy Johnson – who was a sitting US Senator, a former US Attorney General, and a future Minister to the UK – may have actually been legitimately working on behalf of his client. Notably, he faced a much different fate after the trial concluded than did Stone, Ewing and Cox. Within a year, Aiken's law practice had imploded and he had been arrested for bouncing a check. He died in 1878 at the relatively young age of forty-six and was buried in an unmarked grave.   Very little else is known about the young defense attorney. As his Wikipedia page notes, "Information on Aiken's early life is largely unknown; his date of birth, city of birth, and even his full name varies depending on source." And "like his birth records, his war service also remains largely unknown." Even less appears to be known about the ethereal William Doster, who was tasked with defending both Atzerodt and Powell, and who also may not have been thoroughly co-opted.   The reality though is that no defense attorney, no matter how devoted or how skilled, could have saved any of the defendants from their fates. All that was required for conviction was a simple majority of five votes – five votes from a nine-man panel predisposed to convict before the trial even began. Only one additional vote was required to impose the death penalty. And the tribunal's pronouncements would be final; there would be no appeals allowed. All of that, of course, was brazenly unconstitutional.       Union General George McClellan   Stanton's War Department did not just put the eight defendants on trial; the entire Confederacy was put on trial in a shameless attempt to inflame public opinion and inspire bloodlust. As Shelton noted, witnesses told tales of "Plots to burn northern cities, start epidemics, instigate riots" and other nefarious deeds, including poisoning public water supplies, destroying historical buildings, and starving Union POWs. Most of these alleged plots were never actually carried out. And even if they had been, none of that had any relevance at all as to the guilt or innocence of the defendants and would not have been allowed into evidence in any legitimate court proceedings.   Another problem with the introduction of such testimony is that most of the 'witnesses' who delivered it didn't actually exist. One such witness who testified as "Sanford Conover," for example, was actually Charles Dunham, who also used the alias "James Watson Wallace." It was later revealed that Dunham had run what was dubbed a "school for perjured witnesses" at the National Hotel, where he had coached others on how to properly deliver their perjured testimony. Dunham soon found himself in prison after being convicted for both perjury and suborning perjury.   One of those receiving schooling was "Richard Montgomery," who was actually James Thompson, a burglar from New York with a long criminal record. Appearing as "Henry Van Steinacker" was Hans Von Winklestein, a prison inmate who gained his release shortly after testifying. A Canadian presented to the court as "Dr." James Merritt was denounced by his own government as a fraud and a quack. And so on.     Left to right: Thomas Harris, David Hunter, August Kautz, Albion Howe, Lew Wallace, and John Bingham   Defense attorney Doster, whose vehement objection to the introduction of the irrelevant, inflammatory testimony was overruled, would later claim that some of the other prosecution witnesses were actually NDP detectives paid by the government for their testimony. And it would later be revealed that NDP chief Lafayette Baker's order to his underlings instructed them to "extort confessions and procure testimony to establish the conspiracy … by promises, rewards, threats, deceit, force, or any other effectual means."   Many of the state's witnesses were in fact paid handsomely for their testimony. Merritt, for example, collected a $6,000 paycheck, the equivalent of more than $150,000 today. Not bad for a day's work.   There were numerous other irregularities in 1865's version of The Trial of the Century. Major Henry Rathbone, as we have already seen, delivered a bizarrely verbatim recital of his deposition testimony. For those who have forgotten, here's another little taste of Rathbone's version of events, first from his deposition on April 17, 1865, and then from his testimony before the tribunal one month later, on May 15, 1865.   "Deponent then turned to the President; his position was not changed; his head was slightly bent forward, and his eyes were closed. Deponent saw that he was unconscious, and supposing him mortally wounded, rushed to the door for the purpose of calling medical aid. On reaching the outer door of the passageway, as above described, deponent found it barred by a heavy piece of plank, one end of which was secured in the wall … This wedge, or bar, was about four feet from the floor. Persons upon the outside were beating against the door for the purpose of entering. Deponent removed the bar, and the door was opened …"   "I then turned to the President. His position was not changed: his head was slightly bent forward, and his eyes were closed. I saw that he was unconscious, and, supposing him mortally wounded, rushed to the door for the purpose of calling medical aid. On reaching the outer door of the passageway, I found it barred by a heavy piece of plank, one end of which was secured in the wall … This wedge or bar, was about four feet from the floor. Persons upon the outside were beating against the door for the purpose of entering. I removed the bar, and the door was opened …"     Union General William Tecumseh Sherman   Rathbone was clearly 'reading' his testimony from a memorized script, which raises the obvious question of: why? Why was Rathbone so thoroughly rehearsed that he was able to recite his deposition testimony virtually verbatim, without even minor variations in the wording?   Historians, needless to say, have never addressed that question. Another question that has never been addressed is why the photo of John Wilkes Booth that was used throughout the trial wasn't actually of John Wilkes Booth; it was instead an image of his brother, Edwin Booth. What that means, of course, is that every witness who identified Booth as the man they had seen or heard discussing, carrying out, or fleeing from the assassination, was actually identifying Edwin Booth as the culprit. And again, the obvious question that is raised, but that has never been asked or answered, is: why?   In a bold move, defense counsel Doster subpoenaed sitting President Andrew Johnson to appear as a witness, but Johnson cavalierly ignored the summons, with no legal repercussions. Numerous other witnesses who should have been called were strangely absent from the proceedings, like Mary Todd Lincoln and Clara Harris, both of whom were eyewitnesses to the assassination of Lincoln. And William Seward, Frederick Seward, Fanny Seward, Frances Seward, and Emerick Hansell, all of whom were allegedly eyewitnesses to the supposed bloodbath at the Seward home.   The three witnesses who did testify about the alleged attack at the Seward residence – William Bell, George Robinson and Augustus Seward – presented wildly contradictory and problematic accounts, made all the more problematic by the fact that, according to all the early reports, Augustus Seward wasn't actually at the home at the time of the alleged attack.     Confederate General Robert E. Lee with various other Confederate generals in 1869   It will probably come as a shock to no one that in 1865 America, the testimony of a black man carried considerably less weight than the testimony of a white man, especially when the white men in question were the Secretary of State, an Assistant Secretary of State, and a US State Department courier. Why then did the state leave William Seward, Frederick Seward and Emerick Hansell (along with three of the Seward women) on the sidelines while calling to the stand two black servants – two men who were, if we're being honest here, just a step above slaves in the social hierarchy of the time?   According to reports, there were as many as eight eyewitnesses to the carnage at the Seward mansion – six of them white and five of them members of the Seward family. But the only two of the eight called were a black 'houseboy' who was unable to give his age when asked in court, and a black nurse. The only member of the Seward family who was called was the one who wasn't actually home and therefore didn't witness anything.        Defense attorney Thomas Ewing, Jr.   As previously stated, the first arrivals to the house after the alleged attack were Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, and Surgeon General Joseph Barnes. Arriving shortly after them was Assistant Secretary of War Thomas Eckert, who would soon be serving as Lewis Powell's prison guard. Unanswered, of course, is the question of why these four prominent individuals converged on the Seward house before anyone else arrived. And why they didn't instead head immediately to Ford's Theater, where the president lay near death.   No mention was made by any of them of encountering Major Augustus Seward that evening. And testimony at the tribunal also indicated that Augustus was not at home the evening of April 14. And yet, nevertheless, he was presented to the courtroom and to the public as the principal eyewitness to the alleged carnage. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part VII by Dave McGowan | May 7, 2014 According to the official story, Powell came calling at the Seward home the night of April 14 under the guise of delivering medicine for the ailing William Seward. He was greeted by houseboy Bell, whom he allegedly brushed past while insisting that he was to hand-deliver the medications. Powell was then confronted at the top of the stairs by Frederick Seward, who insisted that Powell leave the package with him and not bother the sleeping Secretary of State. Powell then turned to leave, took a few steps down the stairs, and then pulled a gun and attempted to shoot Frederick. When the gun failed to fire, he supposedly bum-rushed Frederick and brutally beat him nearly to death.   According to Bill O'Reilly's overwrought version of events, "The two men grapple as Powell leaps up onto the landing and then uses the butt of his gun to pistol-whip Frederick. Finally, Frederick Seward is knocked unconscious. His body makes a horrible thud as he collapses to the floor, his skull shattered in two places, gray matter trickling out through the gashes, blood streaming down his face."   During that encounter, Fanny Seward supposedly looked out from her father's room and in doing so conveniently gave away William Seward's location. So after incapacitating Frederick, Powell next burst into William Seward's room and encountered George Robinson, whom he grappled with before beginning to brutally slash away at Seward. At that time, Augustus Seward, who had been awakened by all the commotion, allegedly entered the room and began grappling with Powell. Powell though got the best of him as well and then bolted out of the room and down the stairs. In most versions of the story, there is no further mention of Fanny Seward, who was supposedly in her father's room throughout the ordeal.   On his way out of the house, Powell allegedly encountered Hansell, who had just arrived at the home. Hansell was supposedly brutally attacked and left for dead just inside the entrance to the home. Powell then exited the residence and rode off into the night. And that, in a nutshell, is the official story of how one man was allegedly able to leave at least five people mortally wounded while walking away without a scratch.      Frederick Seward, showing the severe scarring from his alleged beating   The witnesses who appeared before the military tribunal, however, had a very hard time keeping the details of that story straight. Here is a portion of Robinson's testimony, delivered on May 19, 1865: "The first I saw of [Powell] I heard a scuffling in the hall; I opened the door to see what the trouble was; as I opened the door he stood close up to it; as soon as it was opened wide enough he struck me and knocked me partially down and then rushed up to the bed of Mr. Seward, struck him and maimed him; as soon as I could get on my feet I endeavored to haul him off the bed and he turned on me; in the scuffle there was a man come into the room who clutched him; between the two of us we got him to the door, or by the door, when he clinched his hand around my neck, knocked me down, broke away from the other man and rushed down stairs."   Amazingly enough, neither the prosecutors nor the defense attorneys bothered to ask him who this other mystery man was. Clearly though it wasn't Augustus Seward, who Robinson, a household servant, would certainly have recognized. When asked specifically whether he saw Powell's alleged "encounter with Major Seward," Robinson replied that he "did not see that." When asked about Frederick Seward, he responded as follows: "I did not see Mr. Frederick Seward around at all." So George Robinson did not see the guy who was supposedly lying in a bloody heap just outside the door to William Seward's room. He also didn't see the guy who supposedly assisted him with trying to subdue Powell. And he didn't see, or at least didn't mention, Fanny Seward. But he did see some mysterious, unidentified stranger.   When later asked, "Where was [Frederick] when [Powell] came out [of Seward's room]?", his unexpected response was: "The first I saw of Mr. Frederick was in the room standing up; he had come inside the door." So it appears that the guy who was lying near death somehow magically got up and strolled into the room, hopefully after pushing the gray matter back into his shattered skull.     The prosecution team: one of Burnett's duties was to oversee the rewriting of the trial transcript to remove various contradictions and inconsistencies   Robinson also told the court that he never heard Powell utter a sound throughout the ordeal. Judge Advocate Holt, sounding a bit incredulous and clearly not getting the answers he wanted, asked the witness this question: "You say that this man, during the whole of this bloody work, made no remark at all; that he said nothing?" Robinson responded with: "I did not hear him make any remark."   Let's now listen in to some of Augustus Seward's testimony, because this is where it really gets interesting: "I retired to bed about 7 o'clock on the night of the 14th, with the understanding that I would be called at 11 o'clock, to sit up with my father; I very shortly fell asleep, and so remained until wakened by the screams of my sister; I jumped out of bed and ran into my father's room in my shirt and drawers; the gas in the room had been shut down rather low, and I saw what appeared to be two men, one trying to hold the other; my first impression was that my father had become delirious, and that the nurse was trying to hold him. I went up and took hold of him, but saw at once from his size and the struggle that it was not my father; it then struck me that the nurse had become delirious and was striking about the room at random; knowing the delicate state of my father's health, I endeavored to shove the person I had hold of to the door, with the intention of putting him out of his room; while I was pushing him he struck me five or six times over the head with whatever he had in his left hand; I supposed it at the time to be a bottle or decanter he had seized from the table; during this time he repeated with an intensely strong voice-'I am mad, I am mad;' on reaching the hall he gave a sudden turn and breaking away from me, disappeared down stairs."   You got all that straight? Augustus first mistook Powell – a strapping, physically fit, 20-year-old man – for his frail, 63-year-old, bedridden father. Following that, he next mistook Powell, a decidedly fair-skinned Caucasian lad, for his father's black nurse. He also completely failed to notice that Robinson was right alongside him grappling with Powell. And he failed to notice that his sister was in the room. And he distinctly heard Powell loudly proclaiming himself to be mad, even though Robinson, also in the room, didn't hear Powell utter a word.   Augustus was also asked about his brother Frederick, to which he responded: "I never saw anything of my brother the whole time." In other words, he didn't notice that he had to practically step over his brother's prone, bloody body to get to his father's room. And he apparently wasn't paying attention when Frederick stood up and walked into that room.     It's Booth's photograph – just not the right Booth   Coupled with the conflicting testimony of Seward and Robinson, there is the enduring mystery surrounding Emerick Hansell. According to the official version of events, Hansell was left lying nearly lifeless just inside the front door of the home. But Dr. T.S. Verdi, the Seward family physician, testified that he "found Mr. Hansell, a messenger of the State Department, lying on a bed, wounded by a cut in the side some two and a half inches deep." He went on to say that that bed was in a third-floor bedroom! Needless to say, no explanation was offered as to how and why Hansell could have ended up there. On that particular night, apparently, it was not uncommon for mortally wounded guys to get up all by themselves and wander around the Seward manor.   It seems pretty obvious that of all the witnesses to testify before the tribunal, none were more important to securing convictions than those who claimed to have witnessed the crimes actually being committed. It seems more than a bit odd then that the state bypassed both the First Lady and a senator's daughter in favor of an otherwise obscure future murderer named Henry Rathbone, who was clearly reading from a script written by unseen others. And it also seems more than a little odd that the state also left no fewer than five members of the Seward household and a State Department courier sitting on the sidelines in favor of two lowly household servants and a member of the Seward family who, by all accounts other than his own, wasn't even in the home that night.   It is on the shoulders of those four men – Augustus Seward, William Bell, George Robinson, and Henry Rathbone, all of whom are all but forgotten and all of whom presented obviously perjured testimony – that the official story of what happened on the evening of April 14, 1865 in the presidential box at Ford's Theater and at the Seward home has now rested for 149 years.     Defense attorney William Doster   As for Bell, his testimony was problematic as well: "When [Powell] came he rang the bell and I went to the door, and this man came in; he had a little package in his hand, and said it was medicine from Dr. Verdi; he said he was sent by Dr. Verdi with particular directions how he was to take the medicine, and he said he must go up; I told him he could not go up … he said that would not do, and I started to go up, and finding he would go up I started past him and went up the stairs before him … I noticed that his step was very heavy, and I asked him not to walk so heavy, he would disturb Mr. Seward; he met Mr. Frederick Seward on the steps outside the door, and had some conversation with him in the hall."   After describing a lengthy argument between Powell and Frederick Seward, Bell testified that Powell "started toward the steps as if to go down, and I started to go down before him; I had gone about three steps, and turned around, saying 'don't walk so heavy;' by the time I had turned round he jumped back and struck Mr. Frederick Seward, and by the time I had turned clear around, Mr. Frederick Seward had fallen, and thrown up his hands, then I ran downstairs and called 'murder;' I went to the front door and cried murder; then I ran down to General Auger's headquarters at the corner."   Finding no one there, Bell ran back to the house in time to see Powell run out and get on his horse. Asked if he saw "with what [Powell] struck Mr. Fred. Seward," Bell responded that "it appeared to be round and wound with velvet; I took it to be a knife afterwards." For the record, it was actually supposed to be a gun.   Probably seeking to avoid perjuring himself too brazenly, Bell adopted the "I didn't see nothing" approach. Powell, acting with superhuman strength and speed, managed to get to and subdue Frederick Seward before Bell could even turn around – after which Bell left the house, missing the rest of the carnage and returning just in time to witness Powell's escape.   One wonders though how Emerick Hansell, the Steven Parent of this story (look it up), somehow managed to not see or hear Bell's frantic flight and shouts of "murder" as he approached the Seward house that night. And why no patrols were near enough to respond to his cries. And exactly how long it took William Bell to turn "clear around." In any event, we know that we can rule Bell out as being the mystery man who assisted George Robinson.     Union General Ambrose Burnside   Amazingly enough, after nearly a century-and-a-half, no one has ever seriously questioned the official narrative of what exactly happened that night. There have been just a relative handful of books written that question various aspects of the assassination, such as whether there were other, unseen conspirators, and whether John Wilkes Booth really was gunned down at Garrett's barn, but even the authors of those books have unquestioningly accepted that what the state says went down in that presidential box and in the Seward home really did happen.   But why? On what basis should we blindly accept those aspects of the official story? Why should we believe a guy who when called upon three times to tell his story under oath, told that story in the exact same words all three times? And why should we believe two guys who supposedly stood side-by-side to fight off an intruder without either noticing the other's presence? And who both somehow failed to notice the allegedly mortally wounded Frederick Seward lying right outside the door? And why should we believe a guy who absurdly claimed that he confused a young, physically fit Lewis Powell for his own invalid, aging father, and then claimed to have confused the very same Lewis Powell with the shorter, older, and much darker George Robinson?   How is it possible that no one has questioned any of that? Do I have to fucking do everything around here?   There were, needless to say, other irregularities in what passed for a trial, including the wholesale suppression of exculpatory evidence. And the introduction of brazenly manufactured evidence, like a supposed cipher letter, also introduced into evidence at John Surratt's trial, that had allegedly been retrieved from a river but that clearly had never been in the water.    Confederate General Robert E. Lee, with son   To briefly recap then, all of the following were distinguishing characteristics of the 'trial' of the conspirators: The defendants were informed of the charges against them just 72 hours before the trial began, depriving them of the ability to put together an effective defense. The defendants, all civilians, were subjected to military justice. The defendants were denied their right to individual trials. The defendants were not allowed to speak in their own defense. The state willfully withheld the list of prosecution witnesses, denying the defendants their right to know the nature of the testimony they would be defending themselves against. The state freely introduced inflammatory, prejudicial testimony. The state made extensive use of witnesses testifying under assumed identities. The state made extensive use of paid witnesses. The defendants were prohibited from privately consulting with their attorneys. The state was not shy about suppressing exculpatory evidence. The state was also not shy about introducing manufactured evidence. The state allowed subpoenaed defense witnesses to ignore those subpoenas. Only a simple majority was required to convict, and only a 2/3 majority was required to impose the death penalty. And yet, through seven weeks of the most extreme prosecutorial misconduct imaginable, the entire defense team raised only twelve objections. They should have raised that many just during the first hour of the first day of the proceedings. If not sooner.   Union General John Pope   On June 29, 1865, the tribunal members met in a secret session to begin reviewing the evidence. It didn't take them long to find all the defendants guilty. On July 5, President Johnson approved all the sentences handed down by the commissioners, including the death sentence for Mary Surratt. The very next day, four of the prisoners were informed that they would hang in less than 24 hours.   Mary Surratt's spiritual advisers were denied access to her until they gave their assurances that they would not proclaim their belief in her innocence. Even then, they were allowed access only for a few hours. All of the prisoners were guarded very closely during their final hours by Thomas Eckert, Lafayette Baker, and a number of his thuggish detectives. Some of the gathered witnesses described the condemned prisoners as looking drugged as they were led to the gallows by Baker's men.   More than a thousand soldiers ringed the prison walls to keep protestors at bay. Just after 1:30 PM on the afternoon of July 7, 1865, four soldiers kicked away the posts that were temporarily supporting the floor of the gallows and Mary Surratt, Lewis Thornton Powell, David Herold, and George Adzerodt fell to their deaths.   Meanwhile, military personnel escorted Dr. Samuel Mudd, Michael O'Laughlin, Ed Spangler, and Samuel Arnold to a remote, isolated, desolate facility known as Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas off the coast of Florida. Photos reveal that what was once undoubtedly a gorgeous tropical atoll had been converted by the US military into a veritable hell on Earth. The facility reportedly featured underground torture cells and dungeons. All four prisoners were held in solitary confinement in conditions so appalling that one of them, Michael O'Laughlin, was dead within two years.     Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas   And that, dear readers, is how 'justice' was meted out to the eight alleged accomplices of John Wilkes Booth. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part VIII by Dave McGowan | Aug 25, 2014  In my continuing quest to gain some kind of understanding of exactly what happened on the night of April 14, 1865, I have worked my way through several more rather tedious treatments of the Lincoln assassination, including a relatively new tome by Leonard Guttridge and Ray Neff (Dark Union, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003) that adds several new layers of complexity to the fabled attack on Secretary of State William Seward. And by "new layers of complexity," I really mean new layers of absurdity.   One thing we learn from the authors is that the "house where the Sewards lived was a thirty-room mansion overlooking Lafayette Square." A three-story, thirty-room mansion. But like virtually everyone else who has written about the alleged attack at the Seward home, the authors offer little commentary on how Lewis Powell, who by all accounts had never been in the home, could have so easily navigated his way through it.   The authors also inform us that, "This was no assassin's work. Seward's body was otherwise unscathed. The knife struck nowhere near the heart or any other vital organ. It was not aimed at the windpipe. It targeted Seward's face – in particular, his ligatured jaw." In other words, none of the wounds that Seward allegedly sustained that night were inconsistent with the injuries he was known to have suffered as a result of the carriage accident. It is, I have to say, a rather remarkable 'coincidence' that Powell's knife struck only where Seward was previously injured.   Contradicting virtually everything else that has been written about the alleged attempted assassination of Seward, Guttridge and Neff also claim that "Two male nurses had been assigned to the secretary, and two State Department messengers, each armed with a Colt revolver, were working shifts as Seward's bodyguard. That Good Friday evening one of the messengers, Emerick Hansell, reached Seward's home shortly after nine in the evening … After a meal in the kitchen, he settled himself in an alcove on the third floor, where most of the family bedrooms were located."   So now we find that, in addition to two active-duty military personnel (George Robinson and Augustus Seward) and two other able-bodied men (William Bell and Frederick Seward) being present in the home, William Seward actually had an armed guard stationed right down the hall from his room – and yet Powell was still able to locate, get to, and brutally attack his target. Well done, Mr. Powell!   According to Guttridge and Neff, Hansell didn't enter into the melee until after William Seward had been attacked and Powell was grappling with Robinson: "Then another figure plunged into the room. It wasn't Fred. He had already staggered to his bedroom, beaten nearly senseless. The new arrival was Emerick Hansell … He heard Robinson cry, 'Hansey, help me.'"     The always photogenic Lewis Powell   In case anyone missed any of that, let's run through the scenario presented by Neff and Guttridge: William Seward had an armed guard stationed just down the hall from his room. We have no idea why he had an armed guard since the President didn't even have one, but we'll just play along and say that he had one. That guard though didn't respond when Powell came calling at the door, forcing his way in. He didn't respond when Powell argued with Bell and pushed past him. He didn't respond when Powell "walked heavy" up two flights of stairs. He didn't respond when Frederick [Seward] stood on the landing loudly arguing with Powell. He didn't respond when Powell then physically attacked Frederick, leaving him for dead (or to wander off to his bedroom, or to get up and wander into his father's room). He didn't respond when William Bell ran from the house screaming "murder!" He didn't respond when Powell forced his way into William Seward's room. He didn't respond when Powell attacked first Robinson and then Seward. No, it wasn't until Powell was fighting his way out of the bedroom that Hansell decided to respond. And even then, despite the fact that Powell had nearly killed three people, including the guy that Hansell was assigned to protect, he opted not to use his weapon, choosing instead to become another casualty.   Does all of that make perfect sense to everyone?   If so, then this infinitely fascinating bit of assassination trivia should make perfect sense as well: "The Seward episode was further complicated by a coincidence. Within twenty-four hours of the Good Friday attack, newspapers reported that Emerick Hansell, the State Department messenger on protective duty and knifed on the third floor, had died of his wounds. The obituaries were all but correct. There were two men named Emerick Hansell. One had indeed succumbed in Washington, but he was a farrier at the Union cavalry depot at Giesboro at the edge of the city. His widow was informed that he was kicked in the head while shoeing a horse. He lingered a week, to die just eight hours after the stabbing of his namesake."   Call me a skeptic if you will, but I am finding it very difficult to believe that that was a 'coincidence.' Truth be told, I'm finding it almost impossible to believe that there were two guys named Emerick Hansell living in Washington, DCin 1865, let alone that one of them died within hours of the other being brutally attacked. If such reports did indeed circulate, then they had to be deliberately false reports. And those false reports led to a very predictable outcome:   "The farrier's death had the effect of stilling questions that only the other Hansell might have answered. Many years would pass before the State Department's messenger, then in pensioned retirement following a resumed career on the federal payroll, would give his story under strict guarantees of confidentiality. His recollection then was that he had been the third man on the landing, rushing to Private Robinson's aid, convinced that the man he and the soldier grappled with was Major Augustus Seward, the secretary's troubled son."   It is obvious from this passage that Guttridge and Neff based their account of the alleged attack at the Seward residence on Hansell's belated, off-the-record recollections. The authors appear to be unaware that Hansell's story is wildly at odds with the accounts of other supposed witnesses, or perhaps they just don't care.     The Seward family home in Washington, DC   We now have testimony from three guys claiming to have been in William Seward's bedroom and to have acted in his defense. One of them, Augustus Seward, had no one assisting him and he thought he was fighting against either his father or his father's nurse. Another of them, Emerick Hansell, was assisted only by Robinson and thought he was grappling with Augustus Seward. The third, George Robinson, thought that he was fighting with a guy he described to a newspaper reporter as having "light sandy hair, whiskers and moustache." And he, of course, thought that he was assisted by someone who was never identified.   None of the three saw Frederick Seward lying unconscious outside William Seward's room, but Robinson did see him enter the room. None of them made any mention of the presence of Fanny Seward, though her belatedly released statement would hold that she was in the room as well. None of them saw Frances or Anna Seward either, though you would think they would have come to see what all the commotion was about at some point. Though Powell and Hansell were both supposedly packing heat, and Augustus Seward's testimony at trial indicated that he retrieved a gun as well, not a single shot was fired that night at the Seward mansion. After being awakened by the commotion, which necessarily would have included Bell's shouts of murder, Major Seward nevertheless opted to initially respond without a weapon. Hansell apparently responded without his weapon as well. And Bell, ignoring the fact that Seward already had an armed guard and a militarily trained and armed son, felt the need to run down the street seeking outside help.   It's hard to imagine a more ridiculously contradictory set of stories. Two of the 'witnesses' essentially identified each other as the assailant, and the third offered up a description that did not in any way fit the always clean-shaven Lewis Powell. To say that there was reasonable doubt in this case would be a serious understatement, but the tribunal had no problem convicting Powell and sentencing him to death (there were even, as previously stated, contingency plans to have him executed before the trial even concluded).   But then again, Doster did wrap up his 'defense' of Powell by delivering a closing argument that began as follows: "May it please the court: There are three things in the case of the prisoner, Powell, which are admitted beyond civil or dispute: (1) That he is the person who attempted to take the life of the Secretary of State. (2) That he is not within the medical definition of insanity. (3) That he believed what he did was right and justifiable. The question of his identity and the question of his sanity are, therefore, settled, and among the things of the past." With a defense like that, how could he lose?     Lewis Powell's empty gravesite   Perhaps James Swanson, who appears to fancy himself to be the reigning expert on the Lincoln assassination, can clear up the confusion surrounding what exactly happened at the Seward manor. In his bestselling Manhunt: The Twelve-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer (William Morrow, 2006) Swanson spins a uniquely preposterous account of the alleged attack. Like other self-styled historians, he handpicks facts from the accounts of various alleged participants while conveniently leaving out all the contradictory elements of those accounts.   One thing that Swanson does get right in his overly wordy account is an acknowledgement that Powell's alleged assignment would have been a very difficult one: "This was a difficult mission even for a man like Powell, a battle-hardened and extremely strong ex-Confederate soldier. Powell had three problems. First, how could he get inside Seward's house? … Once inside, it was Powell's job to track down Secretary Seward in the sprawling, three-story mansion … Powell faced a third challenge: he did not know how many occupants … were on the premises."   In Swanson's telling of the tale, on the night of April 14, 1865, "Fanny [Seward] watched over her father and listened to the sights and sounds of the never-ending celebrations in the streets." Of primary interest here is the mention of the "never-ending celebrations." General Lee had just surrendered to General Grant, the Civil War was all but over, and the nation's capitol was in a celebratory mood. Just the night before, public buildings and private homes across the city were lit up with candles and gaslights while fireworks exploded overhead, providing, by all accounts, a uniquely awe-inspiring view of the city.   The next day, April 14, was a Friday and those celebrations continued well into the night, with tens of thousands of people taking to the streets to join in the revelry. The Seward mansion sat, as previously noted, right across the street from Lafayette Square, which surely would have been filled that night with a sizable portion of that mass of humanity. Keep that in mind as we work our way through Swanson's highly dubious account.   "Around 10:00 P.M.," according to Swanson, Fanny Seward "put down her book, Legends of Charlemagne, turned down the gaslights, and, along with Sergeant George Robinson, a wounded veteran now serving as an army nurse, kept watch over her recovering father." For the record, Robinson was not yet a sergeant, which is one of many factual inaccuracies that can be found throughout Swanson's supposedly authoritative books.   Shortly after Fanny had lowered the lights, Lewis Powell approached the front door of the home and "rang the bell … [and] William Bell, a nineteen-year-old black servant, hurried to answer the door." Amazingly, Swanson knows what William's age was at the time even though Bell himself was unable to provide that information when asked at trial! In any event, an argument ensued between Powell and Bell and, "For five minutes, the assassin and the servant bickered about whether Powell would leave the medicine with Bell."   Powell next pushed past Bell and proceeded up the stairs, where, as we know, he encountered Fred Seward and argued with him as well. After appearing to lose the argument, Powell began to retreat down the stairs but then quickly pivoted and attempted to shoot Fred Seward. When the gun failed to fire, "Powell raised the pistol high in the air and brought down a crushing blow to Seward's head. He hit him so hard that he broke the pistol's steel ramrod, jamming the cylinder and making it impossible to fire again."   Broke the steel ramrod?! No shit? I could see possibly bending it, but how do you "break" a steel ramrod? Had Powell or anyone else hit Seward with that kind of force, and then delivered a few more equally devastating blows, he would certainly have killed him. But according to Swanson, Powell didn't even knock him down (directly contradicting, of course, Bell's sworn testimony at trial): "Powell moved lightning fast. He shoved Fred aside and struck Robinson in the forehead hard with the knife." Swanson later informs us that Fred remained conscious and on his feet throughout the ordeal, though he mostly just "wandered around the house like a zombie, babbling the same phrase, 'It is … it is,' over and over unable to complete the thought."   Meanwhile, "The assassin pushed past the reeling sergeant and the waiflike girl blocking his path and sprinted to the bed" where the ailing William Seward lay helpless. According to Swanson, the only thing that saved Seward's life was Powell's poor aim, which resulted in him completely missing the motionless secretary of state with his first two knife thrusts. By the time he connected, Robinson had rejoined the fight and was attempting to pull Powell away from Seward. At about that time, "Fanny … screamed, not once, but in a ceaseless, howling, and terrifying wail that woke her brother Augustus, or 'Gus,' who was asleep in a room nearby. Fanny then opened a window and screamed to the street below."   So now, in addition to Bell running down the street screaming "murder," we have Fanny Seward screaming out an open window. And yet still, with celebrants swarming around the capitol, no one was able to respond in time to even see Powell, let alone try to stop him! Sounds perfectly reasonable to me. As does the fact that "Gus" was able to sleep through the knock on the door, the argument between Bell and Powell, Powell's noisy ascent of the stairs, Powell's argument with Frederick, Powell's attack on Frederick, Powell forcing his way into William Seward's room, Powell's attack on Robinson, Powell's attack on William Seward, and all the screaming that all the victims would undoubtedly have been doing as they were being viciously attacked. Old Gus was a pretty sound sleeper, I guess.   According to Swanson, Augustus Seward and George Robinson then jointly battled Powell, which we already know directly contradicts the sworn testimony of both of them. That fight supposedly spilled over into the hallway outside Seward's room. At that time, "Secretary Seward's wife, alarmed by Fanny's screams, emerged from her third-floor, back bedroom in time to witness the climax of the hallway struggle between Powell and her son Gus. Uncomprehending, she assumed that her husband had become delirious and was running amok. Fred's wife, Anna, rushed to the scene …"   Apparently Frances and Anna Seward slept even more soundly than Augustus. With their arrival though, Powell was outnumbered six to one, and that didn't even include Hansell, who, according to Swanson, decided that his best bet was to get the hell out of Dodge: "On [Powell's] way out, he caught up with Emerick Hansell, who was running down the staircase, trying to stay ahead of the assassin. The State Department messenger, on duty at Seward's home, was fleeing rather than joining the battle."   Of course he was. That's probably why we all remember him being lynched, which is undoubtedly what would have happened if Swanson's tall tale was true. I guess Hansell slept through most of the ordeal as well, foolishly choosing to flee at the same time as Powell. You'd think he would have just stayed wherever it was that he was hiding. Or run sooner. Those would have been safer options. But then again, since he had a gun and was backed up by at least six people, and the assailant was unarmed, maybe he should have just done his job. That way, he wouldn't have had to haul his gravely wounded body up two flights of stairs to get into bed before the doctor got there.   It is more than a little odd, I must say, that both Augustus Seward and Frances Seward claimed to initially believe that the 'intruder' was actually William Seward "running amok." Was that a common thing for the secretary of state to do? Even when everyone knew that he was confined to bed and completely immobile?   Mr. Robinson, by the way, had a change of heart after telling a reporter about the intruder with "light sandy hair, whiskers and moustache." By the time the trial rolled around just a few weeks later, Robinson was sure that Powell was the assailant. That may have been due to the fact that he had received a gold medal, $5,000 in cash, and a promotion. And he later was awarded the knife allegedly used by Powell in the attack.     This is said to be the only known remains of Lewis Powell   It is impossible for me to believe that the alleged events at the Seward home ever took place. All the available evidence overwhelmingly suggests that it was an entirely manufactured affair. Fanny and Frances Seward, as previously discussed, did not live long after the alleged attack. Neither, of course, did Lewis Powell. William and Frederick Seward chose to never speak publicly about the alleged incident. Augustus Seward, George Robinson, William Bell, and (belatedly) Emerick Hansell gave wildly conflicting accounts. And as mainstream historians continue to work diligently to bend the conflicting accounts into some kind of believable storyline, the story just gets more and more ridiculous.   The more deeply immersed in this I become, the more I am convinced that the key to understanding the Lincoln assassination may be in understanding what didn't happen at the Seward residence. For if the alleged parallel attack on the Sewards never took place, then clearly there was much more to the events of April 14, 1865 than the activities of John Wilkes Booth and a ragtag band of conspirators.   Before wrapping up, let's take a look at one final curiosity surrounding the alleged attack on the Seward family: in all the accounts that I have read – and I have now worked my way through fourteen books chronicling the Lincoln assassination – it is either stated or implied that Powell (and Bell) ascended just one flight of stairs to get to William Seward's bedroom, and descended just one flight to exit the house. But Seward's bedroom was on the third floor of the home, which meant that reaching him (and Frederick and the rest of the cast) would have required first ascending one flight of stairs, then crossing a second-floor landing, and then ascending a second flight of stairs.   That curious fact seems to have remained deliberately obscured for many, many years now. And it's not hard to figure out why, for if that fact is pointed out, it raises the very obvious question of exactly how Powell would have known to bypass the home's second floor and proceed directly to the third. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part IX by Dave McGowan | Oct 21, 2014 If there is anything we can be certain about in regards to the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, it is that we will never know what really happened in the presidential box at Ford's Theatre at approximately 10:15 PM on the night of April 14, 1865.   In addition to the guy who made a hasty exit across the stage and out the back door, and the guy who caught a bullet to the head and never regained consciousness, there were, depending upon which version of events one chooses to believe, either three or four eyewitnesses present in that box that fateful evening. Mary Todd Lincoln was certainly there, as were Major Henry Rathbone and his fiancé/stepsister Clara Harris. By some accounts (including Forbes' own account) presidential aide Charles Forbes was there as well.   The Lincoln party arrived at the theater around 8:30 PM, about a half-hour after the play, Our American Cousin, had begun. The show was briefly halted while the band played "Hail to the Chief," accompanied by a rousing ovation from the crowd, after which the Lincolns and their guests quietly took their seats and the play resumed. Some two hours later, the president lay mortally wounded with a lead ball lodged in his brain.   Of the four potential eyewitnesses, none were ever questioned by reporters. Only one was ever questioned by authorities. Only one was ever deposed. Only one was ever called upon to testify as to what he or she witnessed that evening. Only one ever spoke publicly in any way about what exactly transpired in that box. Despite the fact that the Lincoln assassination was billed as the Crime of the Century, authorities seem to have had no interest at all in speaking with the handful of people who actually witnessed the event.   As for Mary Todd Lincoln, the only words of hers that were ever made public concerning the death of her husband were from a personal letter she sent to an Edward Lewis Baker, Jr. in 1877, twelve years after the assassination. And those strangely punctuated words shed no light at all on the events of that evening: "God, gives us our beloved ones, we make them our idols, they are removed from us, & we have patiently to await the time, when, He, reunites us to them. And the waiting, is so long! My bereavements, have been so intense, the most loving and devoted of husbands, torn from my side, my hand within his own, at the time – and God has recalled from this earth, sons, the most idolising, the noblest, purest, most talented – that were ever given to parents – Their presence grand & beautiful – too good for this world, so full of sorrow – Yet the time will come, when the severance, will be over, together husband, wife and children – never more to be separated – I grieve for those who have been called upon to give up their precious ones, and until the sunlight of a happier clime dawns upon us, we will never know until then, why, we have been visited, by such sorrow."   Clara Harris was similarly tight-lipped about what she witnessed at Ford's Theatre. Her account also comes from personal correspondence, this one written on April 29, 1865, just two weeks after the tragedy: "That terrible Friday night is to me yet almost like some dreadful vision … We four composed the party that evening. They drove to our door in the gayest spirits; chatting on our way – and the President was received with the greatest enthusiasm. They say we were watched by the assassins; ay, as we alighted from the carriage. Oh, how could anyone be so cruel as to strike that kind, dear, honest face! And when I think of that fiend barring himself in alone with us, my blood runs cold. My dress is saturated with blood; my hands and face were covered. You may imagine what a scene! And so, all through that dreadful night, when we stood by that dying bed. Poor Mrs. Lincoln was and is almost crazy. Henry narrowly escaped with his life. The knife struck at his heart with all the force of a practiced and powerful arm; he fortunately parried the blow, and received a wound in his arm, extending along the bone, from the elbow nearly to the shoulder. He concealed it for some time, but was finally carried home in swoon; the loss of blood had been so great from an artery and veins severed. He is now getting quite well, but cannot as yet use his arm …"   It wasn't until almost thirty years after the assassination that Charles Forbes swore out an affidavit; unfortunately, that affidavit also fails to shed any light at all on the events of that evening: "I was the personal attendant of the late President Lincoln from shortly after his first inauguration up to the time he fell by the assassin's bullet … I accompanied him in the carriage, was with him from the carriage to the box in the theatre, and was in the box when the assassin fired his fatal shot." Curious that nearly three decades after John Wilkes Booth was identified as the assassin, Forbes referred to him merely as "the assassin."   And that, dear readers, is the sum total of what we have from three of the four eyewitnesses. Considering once again that this was, as I may have mentioned, the Crime of the Century, that is a rather remarkable set of circumstances.   That leaves us with only the tale told by Major Henry Rathbone, which we already know was a hopelessly scripted, rehearsed affair that he told under oath in almost exactly the same words on no less than three occasions. And yet it is the only account we have – the only account we will ever have – so we must look at it in its entirety, as originally told at his April 17, 1865 deposition. It is a strange tale, to be sure, and it would seem to indicate that Rathbone spent more time studying the physical characteristics of the room than he did watching the play:   "The box assigned to the President is in the second tier, on the right hand side of the audience and was occupied by the President and Mrs. Lincoln, Miss Harris and this deponent and by no other person. The box is entered by passing from the front of the building in the rear of the dress circle to a small entry or passageway about eight feet in length and four feet in width. This passageway is entered by a door which opens on the inner side. This door is placed as to make an acute angle between it and the wall behind it on the inner side. At the inner end of this passageway is another door standing squarely across and opening into the box. On the left hand side of the passageway and very near the inner end is a third door which also opens into the box. This latter door was closed. The party entered the box through the door at the end of the passageway. The box is so constructed that it may be divided into two by a movable partition, one of the doors described opening into each. The front of the box is about ten or twelve feet in length and in the center of the railing is a small pillar overhung with a curtain. The depth of the box from front to rear is about nine feet. The elevation of the box above the stage including the railing is about ten or twelve feet.   "When the party entered the box a cushioned armchair was standing at the end of the box furthest from the stage and nearest the audience. This was also the nearest point to the door from which the box is entered. The President seated himself in this chair and, except that he once left the chair for the purpose of putting on his overcoat, remained so seated until he was shot. Mrs. Lincoln was seated in a chair between the President and the pillar in the centre, above described. At the opposite end of the box – that nearest the stage – were two chairs. In one of these, standing in the corner, Miss Harris was seated. At her left hand and along the wall running from that end of the box to the rear stood a small sofa. At the end of this sofa next to Miss Harris this deponent was seated, and the President, as they were sitting, was about seven or eight feet and the distance between this deponent and the door was about the same. The distance between the President as he sat and the door was about four or five feet. The door, according to the recollections of this deponent, was not closed during the evening.   "When the second scene of the third act was being performed and while this deponent was intently viewing the proceedings upon the stage with his back toward the door he heard the discharge of a pistol behind him and looking round saw through the smoke, a man between the door and the President. At the same time deponent heard him shout some word which deponent thinks was 'Freedom.' This deponent instantly sprang towards him and seized him. He wrested himself from the grasp and made a violent thrust at the breast of this deponent with a large knife. Deponent parried the blow by striking it up and received a wound several inches deep in his left arm between the elbow and the shoulder.   The orifice of the wound is about an inch and a half in length and extends upwards towards the shoulder several inches. The man rushed to the front of the box and deponent endeavored to seize him again but only caught his clothes as he was leaping over the railing of the box. The clothes, as this deponent believes, were torn in this attempt to seize him. As he went over upon the stage, deponent cried out with a loud voice 'Stop that man.' Deponent then turned to the President. His position was not changed. His head was slightly bent forward and his eyes were closed. Deponent saw that he was unconscious and, supposing him mortally wounded, rushed to the door for the purpose of calling medical aid. On reaching the outer door of the passageway as above described, deponent found it barred by a heavy piece of plank, one end of which secured in the wall and the other resting against the door.   It had been so securely fastened that it required considerable force to remove it. This wedge or bar was about four feet from the floor. Persons upon the outside were beating against the door for the purpose of entering. Deponent removed the bar and the door was opened. Several persons who represented themselves to be surgeons were allowed to enter. Deponent saw there Colonel Crawford and requested him to prevent other persons from entering the box. Deponent then returned to the box and found the surgeon examining the Presidents person. They had not yet discovered the wound. As soon as it was discovered, it was determined to remove him from the Theatre.   He was carried out this deponent then proceeded to assist Mrs. Lincoln, who was intensely excited, to leave the Theatre. On reaching the head of the stairs, deponent requested Major Potter to aid him in assisting Mrs. Lincoln across the street to the house which the President was being conveyed. The wound which the deponent had received had been bleeding very profusely and on reaching the house, feeling very faint from the loss of blood, he seated himself in the hall and soon after fainted away and was laid upon the floor. Upon the return of consciousness deponent was taken in the carriage to his residence.   "In review of this transaction it is the confident belief of this deponent that the time which elapsed between the discharge of the pistol and the time when the assassin leaped from the box did not exceed thirty seconds. Neither Mrs. Lincoln nor Miss Harris had left their seats."   Rathbone's deposition and subsequent testimony were given at a time when attorneys did not have the luxury of submitting photographic evidence to set the scene for jurors. It appears then that prosecutors used his detailed physical description to paint a mental image for those in the courtroom. And it is very hard to believe that Rathbone would have spontaneously offered up such testimony. Those details were undoubtedly provided to him as part of the script he appears to have been following.   Let us now look at all the other reasons why Rathbone's account is seriously lacking in credibility. First of all, he claims that the alleged assailant was in the box for up to thirty seconds after shooting Lincoln, long enough to grapple with and seriously wound Rathbone. But the accounts of other witnesses in the theater that evening directly contradict that notion. A witness identified only as "Basset," for instance, claimed that "A second after the shot was fired a man vaulted over the ballister of the box." Witness Frederick Sawyer wrote that, "The whole occurrence, the shot, the leap, the escape – was done while you could count to eight." Actor Harry Hawk, after describing the sequence of events, claimed that "The above all occurred in the space of a few seconds, and at the time I did not know the president was shot."   How then was there time for the alleged struggle with Rathbone? And if Rathbone had been grappling with an assailant as said assailant was leaping over the front railing, as Rathbone claimed, those actions would have been visible to many of the witnesses in the theater. And yet none of the witnesses who claimed to see the man leap from the box mentioned seeing him struggling with Rathbone either before or while doing so.   Another problem is that Rathbone claims to have suffered a substantial wound that bled profusely, so much so that his fiancé allegedly found herself drenched in blood, and yet of all the witnesses who said they saw the fleeing man prominently brandish a large knife as he made his exit across the stage, not one of them mentioned seeing any blood on that knife. Or on the man's hands. Or on his clothing. How is it possible that he could have cut Rathbone so severely, and then continued grappling with him, and yet walked away with no visible blood on him?   Yet another minor problem is that neither Rathbone nor his fiancé made any mention of his very serious wound ever being treated. He claimed that the wound was so severe that he passed out from blood loss, but that he then was merely taken home and dropped off. According to the official story, there were at least three skilled surgeons on hand, none of whom could really do much for the mortally wounded Lincoln. Why then didn't anyone bother to attend to such a grave wound inflicted on a guest of the President? From what I hear, those severed arteries can be a real killer if left unattended.   What we seem to have here is a situation in which: (a) witness accounts don't allow for enough time for Rathbone to have been seriously wounded; (b) Rathbone never received treatment for a serious wound; (c) the knife that allegedly inflicted the wound was bloodless just seconds later, as was the guy carrying it; and (d) none of the self-proclaimed witnesses in the theater that night saw Rathbone grappling with his alleged assailant.     Moving on to other peculiarities in Rathbone's account, one obvious question that is raised is: why would John Wilkes Booth, or anyone else entering the box for the purpose of killing Lincoln in the manner in which it occurred, take the time to wedge the outer door shut? Any pursuers weren't going to come from that direction. And if the alleged plan went awry, the assailant might need to flee in that direction. So why cut off a possible means of escape? And how is it that a sturdy wood plank of the precise length needed to do the job just happened to be on hand? Those are questions that historians have never really provided satisfactory answers to.   According to Rathbone's account, the inner door to the box was open all night. How then would the party not have heard an intruder enter the outer door and then close it and forcibly wedge it shut … before sneaking up behind the President? It doesn't seem possible for an uninvited intruder to have done that. And there was no reason to do it. Booth, it will be recalled, was ludicrously armed with a single-shot derringer. The plan, therefore, was heavily dependent upon the element of surprise. Why then risk discovery by pointlessly wedging the door shut?   Who then really wedged that door shut and why? Did it benefit the alleged assailant, or did it provide a window of opportunity to stage the scene before any responders could get to the president?   Several other questions are raised by Rathbone's account, including why the president was seated furthest from the stage and closest to the door? Wouldn't the guest of honor customarily get the best seat in the house? Why had the furniture in the box that day been arranged to place him furthest from the stage? And being that he was the fourth member of the party, why didn't Rathbone sit in the fourth chair along the front of the box? Why did he choose instead to sit alone on a sofa slightly behind the others   Beyond the problems with Rathbone's account, there are other problems with the official story of what went down in Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865. According to witness accounts, the man fleeing across the stage brandished his knife in his right hand, indicating that he was right-handed. But the bullet that killed Lincoln, purportedly fired by an assailant standing behind him, entered behind his left ear and traveled diagonally through the brain cavity, ending up behind his right eye. That would be a rather tricky shot to pull off for a right-hander. To the extent that historians have addressed this anomaly, it is generally claimed that Lincoln turned his head just as the shot was fired. But that is purely speculation aimed at bringing the known facts of the case in line with the official story.   According to all the early witness accounts, events played out very quickly and the suspect was across the stage and out of the building before anyone realized what had happened. It was only then, when it was too late to apprehend the suspect, that Mary Lincoln's anguished cries from the box could be heard, along with Rathbone's futile exhortations to stop the fleeing suspect. But why did it take so long for Mary Todd and the others to cry out?   Mary Lincoln had had her husband gunned down as he sat right beside her, hand in hand. She had then witnessed a violent struggle between her husband's killer and Major Rathbone, during which Rathbone was grievously wounded, bathing the box in blood. Had Rathbone succumbed to his alleged wound, Mary and Clara would have been left alone in that box with a knife-wielding madman. You would think then that they would have been screaming bloody murder throughout the ordeal, and quite likely trying to exit that box. Help, after all, was just steps away.   But instead the two ladies remained stoic, and seated, throughout the performance. It wasn't until the assailant had leaped from the box to the stage, regained his footing, run across the stage and then exited the building that Mary verbally responded to the attack. And Clara Harris never responded at all.   Why the curiously delayed reactions from everyone in the presidential box? And why, as previously asked in this series, would the assailant have chosen such a fundamentally preposterous weapon as a single-shot derringer for this mission? And who would plan an escape route that included an exceedingly risky leap onto a very hard stage floor below, especially while wearing riding boots with spurs? Was that really a planned escape route, or was it an improvised one?   Such are the questions that historians have avoided asking for 150 years now.     One thing that we cannot definitively conclude from the early witness accounts, contrary to popular opinion, is that the guy who hastily exited Ford's Theatre that evening was John Wilkes Booth. In witness accounts recorded years after the official story had cast a long shadow over that day's events, Booth's name pops up fairly often. But it isn't so easy to find in the early accounts.   One guy closest to the scene was Army Captain Theodore McGowan, who was seated in Ford's Theatre not far from the entrance to the president's box. I like to think that this guy was an upright sort of guy, primarily because he had a very honorable name. When called upon to testify at the military tribunal, McGowan had this to say: "I was present at Ford's Theatre on the night of the assassination. I was sitting in the aisle leading by the wall toward the door of the President's box, when a man came and disturbed me in my seat, causing me to push my chair forward to permit him to pass; he stopped about three feet from where I was sitting, and leisurely took a survey of the house. I looked at him because he happened to be in my line of sight … I know J. Wilkes Booth, but, not seeing the face of the assassin fully, I did not at the time recognize him as Booth."   So here we have a guy who knew Booth, and yet from just three feet away, with the guy directly in his line of sight, he did not recognize the man in the theater as Booth. It is a fairly safe bet that the government exerted considerable pressure on Captain McGowan to positively identify Booth, and yet he proved unable, or unwilling, to do so. Curious also that McGowan referred to him in the present tense when Booth was supposed to be dead.   So what are we to make of all of this? Was Rathbone really gravely injured? Or was his wound a substantially less severe one that was self-inflicted while responders were held at bay by the barricaded door? Was it really John Wilkes Booth who entered the presidential box that evening? And whoever it was, did he enter for the purpose of assassinating the president? Would a small derringer have been the weapon of choice for an assassin, or was it a weapon that would have been easy for someone else in that box to have brought along?     One thing we do know – Henry Rathbone's actions in the years after the assassination clearly demonstrated that he was fully capable of two things: murder, and self-inflicted knife wounds. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part X by Dave McGowan | Nov 24, 2014 It should be noted here that it has never made any sense at all why John Wilkes Booth would have chosen Ford's Theatre as the ideal site to assassinate the president. As eyewitness Edwin Bates noted the day after the shooting, "the probability was that the man when found would be discovered to be some insane person, that the lowest depths of human depravity even in a rebel of the worst type would not permit to commit such a horrible deed in so bold a manner before thousands of people & where there could be so little chance of escape." (Timothy S. Good We Saw Lincoln Shot, University Press of Mississippi, 1995)   As H. Donald Winkler has written, there were numerous opportunities to kill Lincoln that would not have put the assassin at such high risk of capture: "the president had made himself an easy target. He stole away for solitary walks, especially at night. He held public receptions where security was almost nonexistent. He conferred with generals in the field. He stood atop a parapet at Fort Stevens on the outskirts of Washington for a clear view of Jubal Early's approaching Confederate forces as soldiers around him were shot dead. He attended the theater frequently. He had walked virtually unguarded through the streets of the fallen Confederate capital. When he and his family stayed at his summer retreat at the Soldiers Home on the outskirts of Washington, he often rode back and forth to the White House in an unguarded carriage. Nearly every night, before going to bed, he strolled without protection down a densely shaded path through the White House grounds to the War Department's telegraph office to learn the latest news from the war front." (H. Donald Winkler Lincoln and Booth, Cumberland House, 2003)   The only conceivable reason to carry out the mission at Ford's was to make the assassination as much of a public spectacle as possible. Which was also true, of course, of the events that played out in Dealey Plaza on November 22, 1963, and the events that played out in New York on September 11, 2001. If there had been television in 1865, you can bet that the cameras would have been rolling in Ford's Theatre on the night of April 14.   Beginning at about 10:30 PM or shortly thereafter on that particular evening, a curious series of events played out in Washington, DC. At about that time, according to the official narrative, a man riding hell-bent-for-leather to get out of town approached the Navy Yard Bridge. The bridge though was closed due to a curfew imposed by the War Department, and armed guards were under standing orders not to let anyone cross without official authorization.   The rider on the swift horse allegedly identified himself as John Wilkes Booth. He did not, of course, need to do that. It wasn't as if the guard, Silas Cobb, was going to ask him for an ID to verify his identity. In those days, a man had to be taken at his word as to who he really was. Those engaged in activities that could earn you jail time, or worse, generally used an array of aliases. But the guy who had allegedly committed the 'Crime of the Century' just minutes earlier purportedly used his real name.   In that regard, Booth was a very accommodating kind of guy. Earlier in the day, when he had supposedly stopped by the Kirkwood House to visit Vice President Johnson – a guy supposedly slated to be assassinated just hours later – Booth had thoughtfully left a calling card. According to Capt. Theodore McGowan, he left another one at the entrance to the presidential box at Ford's Theatre: "He took a small pack of visiting-cards from his pocket, selecting one and replacing the others, stood a second, perhaps, with it in his hand, and then showed it to the President's messenger, who was sitting just below him." Booth was a big believer, it seems, in dropping breadcrumbs along the evidence trail.   Silas Cobb, for reasons that historians have never been able to explain, and often have never attempted to explain, allowed the rider to pass over the closed bridge and into Maryland. Cobb was never reprimanded or punished in any way for allowing the president's assassin to escape the city – which is okay, I suppose, since the same is true of everyone else who blatantly 'dropped the ball' that night.   Just minutes later, another rider looking to cross into Maryland approached the bridge. This rider, who would later be identified in the official narrative as David Herold, failed to properly identify himself. He was, nevertheless, also allowed to cross the officially closed bridge. Minutes after that, a third rider supposedly approached the bridge. This one, local stableman John Fletcher, was supposedly in hot pursuit of David Herold.   Fletcher would later claim that he had seen Herold riding through town on a horse that was supposed to have been returned, and, fearing that the horse was being stolen, he had run back to his stables, saddled and mounted another horse, and took off in pursuit of Herold. Cobb supposedly told Fletcher that he would let him pass, once again in violation of standing orders, but that he wouldn't be able to return, so Fletcher abandoned his alleged pursuit and returned to his stables.   This alleged sequence of events raises any number of deeply troubling questions that historians have done their very best to avoid answering, or even addressing. First and most obviously, why were both Booth and Herold allegedly allowed to pass over a closed bridge despite standing orders to the contrary? Another obvious question is how would John Fletcher have possibly known, after going to fetch his own horse, which way David Herold was headed on the dark streets of Washington?   Yet another painfully obvious question is why would John Wilkes Booth have given his real name? True enough, this was 1865 and travel was by horseback and the world was not a connected sort of place, so Booth would have been confident that Cobb would have had no clue yet about the shooting of Lincoln. But pursuers would surely be on the way very soon, with Ford's Theatre just three miles away, and tipping them off as to your flight path probably isn't such a good idea.   The next obvious question is why didn't pursuers arrive there shortly after this sequence of events? Indeed, why didn't anyone arrive there throughout the entire night? Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who quickly assumed control of the manhunt, had an impressive array of manpower at his disposal: federal troops, metro police, cavalry troops, provost marshals, and Lafayette Baker's NDP detectives. Yet none of them ever made their way over to the Navy Yard Bridge, though it was well known as an underground Confederate route.   Manpower was deployed first to the north and northwest, the least likely escape routes. The only hole in the dragnet throughout the entire night was the underground route to the South across the Navy Yard Bridge, which was never mentioned that night in any War Department dispatches. Had anyone involved in the manhunt – anyone at all – bothered to stop by the Navy Yard Bridge, it would have been quickly discovered that Booth and a likely accomplice had crossed over into Maryland. But that didn't happen and pursuers were instead sent on wild goose chases throughout the night.   Another less obvious question is why was Booth so woefully unprepared for his escape? He had to assume that he was going to have to hide out for a time and/or survive on the trail. Why then did he bring no provisions with him? No change of clothes, no bedroll or blanket, no weapons other than his dagger, no toiletries or razor, no food. Nothing that would be required for survival on the road. And the same was true of Herold.   Why would Booth, or any reasonably sane person, plot an assassination at a venue from which escape was highly unlikely? Why would the very first phase of that escape involve an incredibly risky leap onto a hard stage floor while wearing riding boots with spurs? Why would his escape route necessitate crossing a bridge that he had no reasonable expectation of being allowed to cross? And why would he have failed to bring along any provisions to survive during his time on the lam?   There is also the question of why there was a two to three-hour interruption in telegraph service in and out of Washington following the assassination. Stanton had been installed as Secretary of War in January 1862 on the recommendation of Secretary of State William Seward. On February 14, Lincoln had signed Executive Order #1, giving Stanton the power of arbitrary arrest. That too had been at Seward's urging. By early March, Stanton had assumed control of all the nation's telegraph lines and had the machinery comprising the hub of the system moved to the War Department offices. He would soon seize control of the country's transportation system as well.   In addition to the civilian telegraph system, the War Department had its own system as well, to transmit secure news and updates on the war effort. Both systems were housed next to Stanton's office at the War Department. On the night of April 14, the civilian telegraph service was out for up to three hours following the assassination, disrupting communications in and out of Washington. That curious fact was never publicly acknowledged. There was also an unexplained delay in getting the news out on the War Department's telegraph service. The first dispatch concerning the shooting of Lincoln was not written until 1:30 AM, more than three hours after the events at Ford's Theatre; it wasn't sent until 2:15 AM, some four hours after the curtain fell at Ford's.   Then there were the curious actions of LA Gobright, the Associated Press agent in the nation's capitol. At around 11:00 PM, he sent out his first dispatch, which was oddly vague and lacking in details. Even odder, he quickly followed it with a second dispatch instructing recipients that the first message was "stopped." Gobright, it should be noted, was very close to the scene and knew what had gone down. He supposedly rushed over to Ford's immediately after the shooting and is credited with being the guy who allegedly found the derringer on the floor of the box, where it had conveniently been left behind but had apparently not been noticed by anyone else. I guess securing the crime scene wasn't a big priority in those days, even when it was the scene of the Crime of the Century, so it was up to reporters to gather the physical evidence.   And some of you probably thought that having controlled assets in the media was some kind of mid-20th century innovation that began with Operation Mockingbird. Guess again.   Yet another problem with the official story is that this was supposed to be a very well planned, coordinated attack on multiple targets. The attacks on President Lincoln in Ford's Theatre, Secretary of State William Seward in his family home, Vice President Andrew Johnson in his hotel room, and possibly Secretary of War Edwin Stanton in his family home, were supposed to occur simultaneously, which would have been an extremely difficult operation to pull off given the limitations in communications in those days.   A considerable amount of research and planning would have had to go into such an ambitious project. But the reality is that it wasn't known that the Lincolns were going to be attending Ford's Theatre until the very day that Lincoln was shot, which didn't leave a lot of time to plan such an intricate series of attacks. Yet we are to believe the plan was thwarted only by such things as Lewis Powell's ineptitude with a knife and George Adzerodt's cowardice.   And if there was an extensive amount of planning done, then why was no thought apparently given to the aftermath and escape? Lewis Powell never made it out of the city and supposedly ended up hiding out in a tree for a few days. Booth chose an escape route that included a dangerous jump onto a stage floor in front of hundreds of potential pursuers, followed by heading directly to a closed bridge under armed guard. And then he was off into the wilderness for an extended stay, with a broken leg and no provisions.   One aspect of the events of that day that is frequently downplayed is the late cancellation by General Ulysses Grant and his wife, which was highly unusual. Declining a presidential invitation was all but unthinkable in those days; canceling at the eleventh hour was obviously an even worse affront. Especially when this was to be a major historical event – the first joint public appearance of the victorious president and his heroic general. And especially when the reason given for the cancellation – that the Grants had to catch an evening train to go see their kids in New Jersey – didn't hold much water.   As Winkler has written, "the Grants could have taken a Saturday morning train with better connections than the six o'clock Friday evening train, which was much slower and necessitated a long wait in Philadelphia. The morning train would have reunited the Grants with their children just two hours later than the earlier train." So the Grants could have spent the evening at the theater basking in the adulation of the crowd, then enjoyed a good night's sleep in Washington, and still got to their children almost as quickly. Why then would they choose to both inconvenience themselves and snub the president?   And they were not the only ones to snub the president. After the cancellation by the Grants, Lincoln asked a few other notable figures in Washington, who all declined. One of them was Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax, Jr., who would, four years later, take over the vice-president's office. And so it was that the guys who would take over as president and vice-president when Lincoln's term expired both opted to snub Lincoln on the evening of his assassination. Lucky break for them, I guess. And the guy who immediately took over at the White House, just as soon as he sobered up, caught a really lucky break when George Adzerodt supposedly opted not to assassinate him.   Schuyler Colfax, by the way, was a member of the extended van Cortland/Schuyler/Rensselaer clan that also includes Laurel Canyon's own David van Cortland Crosby.   By various accounts, Lincoln walked over to the War Department on the afternoon/evening of April 14 to ask Stanton if Major Thomas Eckert might serve as his guest/bodyguard that evening. Eckert had run the War Department's telegraph service since 1862. He was a large, powerfully built, physically imposing man who historians agree would have provided Lincoln with considerable protection. But Stanton refused, claiming that Eckert had important work to do that night. In truth, Eckert would be at home that evening, doing nothing of any importance.   Though Eckert was ostensibly recruited by the War Department based on his expertise with telegraph systems, he was a close confidant of Stanton who was known to receive assignments far removed from organizing and running communications systems. One of those assignments, as previously noted, was as Lewis Powell's personal guard during his confinement and 'trial.' Not long after completing that assignment, Eckert was rewarded with a promotion to Assistant Secretary of War.   Yet another longstanding problem with the official story is the unexplained assignment of ne'er-do-well police officer John Parker as Lincoln's personal bodyguard, an assignment he had landed just over a week earlier. That assignment had come, though no one really likes to talk much about it, at the instigation of Mary Todd Lincoln. Mary wrote a letter on April 3, 1865, handwritten on White House stationary, that read as follows: "This is to certify that John F. Parker, a member of the Metropolitan Police, has been detailed for duty at the Executive Mansion. By order of Mrs. Lincoln." The next day, she wrote another requesting that Parker be exempted from the draft.   Due directly to Mary Lincoln's actions, it was Parker who was assigned to guard the president at Ford's Theatre. True to his nature, he arrived at least two hours late for that assignment. And then promptly abandoned his post, leaving the president unguarded. So that he could wander next door and get good and drunk, by some accounts. He next surfaced at 6:00 AM the next morning at the police precinct, in the company of a drunken hooker. Parker attempted to book her, but records indicate that he was unable to make a case against her and she was released. Parker had a habit of arresting prostitutes who refused to provide him with free services. In any event, the important point here is that Parker obviously had more important business to attend to than preventing the assassination of the president.   Metro police superintendent A.C. Richards – the same guy who the industrious AP agent supposedly turned the derringer over to – filed charges against Parker in May 1865. But those charges were dropped the next month without explanation and Parker continued on in his position. Numerous questions still surround this particular aspect of the assassination, as summarized by H. Donald Winkler:   "Inquiring minds should have raised the following questions regarding Mary Lincoln, Edwin M. Stanton, and John Parker: On what basis and on whose authority did the first lady authorize Parker's assignment to the White House? On whose recommendation was Parker's name submitted to her? Was she aware of Parker's record? If she was, why did she want such a person to guard her husband? If she was not familiar with Parker, what prompted her to approve him without knowing more about him? Did she know him at all? Was she related to him, or did she think she was related to him? (Her mother's family name was Parker.) Did she authorize Parker to leave his post to watch the play? Was Stanton aware of Parker's assignment to the White House? If he was not, should he have been? If he was, why didn't he object to it? Considering the secretary's concern for the president's safety, shouldn't his department have investigated anyone proposed for assignment to protect the president? Considering the innocent people arrested after the assassination, why didn't Stanton order Parker's arrest or at least investigate his apparent misconduct? Was it not possible that Parker was part of Booth's conspiracy? Didn't that possibility deserve investigation? Regarding Parker's superiors, did Stanton consider that one of them might have issued orders allowing Parker to leave his post? Was he aware of Mary Lincoln's endorsement of Parker? Was that a factor in his decision not to arrest Parker? Did the secretary in any way try to influence any pending charges against Parker? If so, why? Was he trying to protect Mary Lincoln? Did Stanton know Parker or have any contact with him before April 14? Did any of his staff know Parker? Did Parker have any communication with Mary Lincoln, John Wilkes Booth, Stanton, or anyone from the War Department on or before April 14, 1865? Did he know Booth? Did Booth bribe him to leave his post? Who dictated Parker's duties for that night? What specifically were his instructions? Why did he leave his post? Did it not occur to Parker that by doing so he was jeopardizing the president's life?"   As Winkler added, "Such questions apparently were never asked, and the participants never commented on them. No one seemed to want to set the record straight."   Keep in mind that that lengthy list of questions only covers one small aspect of the events of that day. There are literally hundreds of unanswered, and frequently unasked, questions still surrounding the Lincoln assassination. As one further example, there is the question of how it was that in at least a half-dozen isolated pockets of the country, news of Lincoln's assassination was reported four to twelve hours before the Lincolns had arrived at Ford's Theatre?   Folks in St. Joseph, Minnesota, which was 40 miles from the nearest railroad and 80 miles from the nearest telegraph service, learned of Lincoln's death while he was still very much alive. So did the good people of Manchester, New Hampshire. And the people living in Middleton, New York. And in Newburgh, New York as well. Ace reporters at the Whig Press got the scoop before the shot was fired.   Shit happens, I guess. Maybe they had caught wind of the fact that, a couple weeks before the assassination, Mary Todd Lincoln, who was known to go on extravagant shopping sprees, had purchased some $25,000 (in today's dollars) worth of mourning clothes. It's always good to be prepared. Even when your husband isn't even ill, let alone dying. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part XI by Dave McGowan | Mar 13, 2015 When we left off on the last outing, two men officially identified as John Wilkes Booth and David Herold had just crossed the Navy Yard Bridge from Washington, DC into Maryland. They were the only two people to cross the bridge after curfew that fateful night, so being allowed to do so was quite the lucky break for the pair. Just as it had been a lucky break for Booth that Lincoln's bodyguard for the evening, John Parker, had abandoned his post (as had coachman Francis Burns and presidential aide Charles Forbes, all three of whom went next door to drink in the same bar as John Wilkes Booth), and that General Grant and his military entourage had not accompanied the Lincoln party to the theater.   Booth caught numerous 'lucky breaks' that night, like having the telegraph service go down right after the assassination. But as Thomas Eckert later explained to a congressional committee, that apparently was a trivial matter: "It did not at the time seem sufficiently important, as the interruption only continued about two hours. I was so full of business of almost every character that I could not give it my personal attention … I could not ascertain with certainty what the facts were without making a personal investigation, and I had not time to do that."   For those who may have forgotten, Eckert was hired specifically to set up and maintain the telegraph system, which naturally raises the question of what other, more important "business of every character" he had to attend to on a night when keeping the system running should have been, one would think, of utmost importance.         Four versions of Booth's alleged escape route   Leonard Guttridge and Ray Neff have written in Dark Union that Booth caught another lucky break when, at the same time that the telegraph system mysteriously went down, "someone at the gasworks on Maryland Avenue shut off the gas that fed the lights around the Capitol and westward along Pennsylvania Avenue," plunging the assassin's escape route into darkness at a most opportune time. (Leonard Guttridge and Ray Neff  Dark Union: The Secret Web of Profiteers, Politicians, and Booth Conspirators That Led to Lincoln's Death, Wiley, 2003)   Booth also caught a lucky break when his questionable choice of a firearm turned out to be surprisingly adequate for the job. He took a huge risk, it will be recalled, in bringing a Derringer as his only firearm – a risk that was, as James Swanson noted in Manhunt, completely unnecessary: "Booth couldn't have chosen the Deringer [sic] because he could not obtain a revolver. He had already purchased at least four, and if he did not have any in his hotel room within easy reach, he could have gone out and bought another one. In the war capital of the Union, thousands of guns, including small, lightweight pocket-sized revolvers, were for sale in the shops of Washington." (James Swanson  Manhunt: The 12-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer, William Morrow, 2006)   Another lucky break for Booth was that the locks on both of the doors leading into the presidential box at Ford's Theatre were conveniently broken, rendering them useless. And a spy hole had been drilled into one of them at eye level, so that someone approaching could survey the scene inside the booth before entering. Both of those anomalies were apparently unnoticed by Lincoln and his not-very-security-oriented entourage. And, as previously discussed, a heavy piece of lumber precisely long enough to wedge the door shut happened to be on hand. Many historians have claimed that Booth himself had come by earlier in the day and broken the locks, drilled the hole, and fashioned and hidden the wedge for the door, but no evidence to support such claims has ever been presented.   Booth also caught a lucky break in that he was able to successfully execute an unlikely and extremely risky escape from a crowded theater. As no less a scholar than Bill O'Reilly has had written for him, "A less informed man might worry about being trapped in a building with a limited number of exits, no windows, and a crowd of witnesses—many of them able-bodied men just back from the war." Donald Winkler was a bit more blunt in his assessment: "It sounded like a foolhardy plan with no chance of success.   How could one man with a single-shot derringer, a bullet, and a knife walk nonchalantly through a crowded theater, pass unobstructed through two doors into the State Box, stand behind the president without being seen by the two occupants in the box, kill the president with no one hearing the sound of the shot, leap eleven feet to the stage, take time to yell a message to the audience, and escape through a rear exit? Fulfilling this mission required far more than blind luck." (Bill O'Reilly and Martin Dugard Killing Lincoln: The Shocking Assassination That Changed America Forever, Henry Holt, 2011; and H. Donald Winkler Lincoln and Booth: More Light on the Conspiracy, Cumberland House, 2003)   Actually, there were obviously more than two occupants in the box and plenty of people heard the shot, but such glaring errors are commonplace in the existing literature on the assassination.   So having caught numerous 'lucky breaks,' Booth and Herold rode off separately into the Maryland night, with Booth having a lead on Herold. No mention is ever made of why Powell, who had supposedly attacked the Seward family, and Adzerodt, who was supposed to have killed second-in-command Andrew Johnson, were not included in the escape plan. In any event, Booth and Herold supposedly met up eight miles from the city limits. How they did so in the dark and with no communication devices is anyone's guess. No mention is made in the literature of Booth asking Herold anything about how the alleged attack at the Seward mansion had gone down, or about the attack on Johnson that had supposedly been planned, or about what had become of Powell and Adzerodt.     The Surrat Tavern in Surrattsville   The pair's first stop, so the story goes, was at Mary Surratt's tavern in Surrattsville, run by John Lloyd. They allegedly arrived there around midnight. Lloyd, known as a raging drunkard, allegedly supplied the pair with two carbines, field glasses, and booze. By many accounts, his confession to such high crimes was obtained through torture. And it is never explained why the pair wouldn't have already had those items, and various other provisions, from the outset. Lloyd became a witness for the prosecution at the pseudo-trial of the conspirators. Of course, his other option was certain conviction and probable execution, so he was highly motivated to tell the story the government wanted him to tell.   The pair's next stop – at about 4:30 in the morning on April 15, 1865, with Lincoln still clinging to life – was at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd, who gained the dubious distinction of being the only person along Booth's alleged escape route to be prosecuted and convicted. "Wanted" posters issued by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton warned that "All persons harboring or secreting the conspirators or aiding their concealment or escape, will be treated as accomplices in the murder of the President and shall be subject to trial before a military commission, and the punishment of death." As we shall see though, various historians have identified at least two dozen people who supposedly provided aid and comfort to the fugitives, and none of them, other than Mudd, were ever prosecuted for their alleged crimes and all of their names are now long forgotten.     The home of Dr. Mudd and family   Booth and Herold supposedly introduced themselves to Mudd using the aliases of Tyson and Henson, and by some accounts, Booth wore a fake beard – which of course makes perfect sense since Booth had chosen not to don a disguise before committing the crime, and had left his real name scattered about the crime scene and the escape route. And by virtually all accounts, Mudd knew Booth and had had prior dealings with him, so the good doctor would surely have seen through a cheap disguise. For the record, Mudd claimed that he did not recognize the man he treated as John Wilkes Booth, and he could not identify David Herold from a photograph.   Herold, meanwhile, maintained that he had crossed the bridge out of Washington on the afternoon of April 14 and was long gone from the city when Lincoln was shot. He also claimed that he had not gone to the Mudd house with Booth or anyone else. And evidence does indeed suggest that Herold spent the afternoon of April 14 on a horseback ride in the Maryland countryside. And he did so with – and I couldn't possibly make this stuff up – a sixteen-year-old kid by the name of Johnny Booth, who was apparently not related to the far more famous John Booth. Herold and the young Booth got drunk and passed out and were found the next morning by Johnny's father. Johnny and his father, of course, were not called upon the testify at the mock trial.   Meanwhile, Mudd repaired the damage to his visitor's leg, which he later described in a statement as a not very serious or painful wound, and fashioned a splint for him. He then offered the exhausted travelers sleeping accommodations. After catching some sleep and paying the good doctor for his services, the pair left later that day. At the infamous trial of the conspirators, the story did not pick up again until nine days later, on April 24, when the pair allegedly took a ferry across the Rappahannock River. Various historical narratives have filled in those missing nine days, though not necessarily with a story that has much credibility.            Thomas Jones and namesake   According to Lincoln folklore, a guy by the name of Oswell Swann (sometimes identified as Oswald Swann), described as being half black and half Indian, guided the pair to the home of a Samuel Cox at about 1:00 AM on April 16, 1865. Cox allegedly advised Booth and Herold to hide out in a nearby pine thicket, and had his overseer, Franklin Robey, guide them there. He then summoned Thomas Jones to supply them with food, blankets, and newspapers. Needless to say, none of these men were ever prosecuted for their alleged capital offenses.     Samuel Cox   Booth and Herold supposedly spent five long days cooling their heels in that pine thicket. During that time, they had to keep quiet at all times for fear of alerting any nearby patrols to their whereabouts. They couldn't light a fire to keep warm. And Booth is generally described as being immobilized and in considerable pain from his injury (the one that Dr. Mudd described as not particularly painful). According to the best-selling Manhunt, for example, "Booth never rose from the ground during the time in the thicket." So the wealthy, accomplished, well-bred actor spent five agonizing days lying hungry and motionless on the cold, unforgiving ground of a Maryland pine thicket. Sounds perfectly reasonable.   One problem with that tall tale though concerns the fate of Booth's and Herold's horses. It is agreed that they surely had horses when they arrived at the pine thicket, and they would have had to get rid of them to avoid giving away their position to any passing patrols. So what happened to them? In Manhunt, James Swanson tells the following tale: "Davey [Herold] untied both horses and led them by the reins to a quicksand morass about a mile from the pine thicket. Quickly, he shot each one in the head with a pistol or the carbine, and then sank their bodies, still accoutered with saddles, bits, bridles, stirrups, and all. There they rest in an unmarked grave, their skeletons undiscovered to this day."   Here Swanson has acknowledged something that historians agree on: despite one of the world's most exhaustive manhunts, no trace of the two horses was ever found. According to the guy who actually writes the books that Bill O'Reilly puts his name on, "A combined force of seven hundred Illinois cavalry, six hundred members of the Twenty-second Colored Troops, and one hundred men from the Sixteenth New York Cavalry Regiment now enter the wilderness of Maryland's vast swamps [on April 18, 1865] … Incredibly, eighty-seven of these brave men will drown in their painstaking weeklong search for the killers." No large animal carcasses were found on that search, or on any other searches. O'Reilly doesn't mention, by the way, how many of those eighty-seven alleged drowning deaths involved members of the Twenty-Second Colored Troops (sorry – I couldn't resist).   Historians also agree that Booth was far too seriously injured to be of any help to Herold, leaving Herold solely responsible for disposing of the horses. There are, generally speaking, two versions of the 'story of the disappearing horses,' both of which are laughably absurd. One commonly told fable holds that Herold led the two horses into quicksand; the other posits that he shot and buried them. Swanson has essentially weaved a new version of the tall tale by combining the two.   Some historians just avoid any mention of the disappearing horses trick, probably out of a desire to not sound like buffoons. But others have no problem with repeating tales that have stood unchallenged for well over a century despite being easily discredited. Because the reality, dear readers, is that there is no rational explanation for how two horses and all the gear accompanying them could have just vanished into thin air. Only in some fantasy world would it be possible for one man, working alone in fairly primitive conditions and with no tools at his disposal, to dig graves deep enough to completely conceal two very large animal carcasses without even leaving mounds for searchers to find. And even if he could somehow dig the holes, how would one man get those very heavy carcasses into those miraculously excavated graves? And wouldn't shooting them be a very risky maneuver, since gunshots tend to attract attention? It seems rather unlikely then that Herold shot the horses and then buried them both with his bare hands.   Equally preposterous is the claim that Herold led the horses into quicksand and let them sink to their deaths. Horses can be rather obedient creatures, to be sure, but they certainly aren't stupid and they won't willingly walk into what they would surely perceive as a deathtrap. And how exactly would someone go about leading them into quicksand? Wouldn't that require that the person doing the leading would have to walk out into the quicksand ahead of the horses? Those are rather moot points though given that Wikipedia describes quicksand as "harmless," and notes that "People falling into (and, unrealistically, being submerged in) quicksand or a similar substance is a trope of adventure fiction, notably in movies."   It doesn't actually happen, you see, in real life. But that hasn't stopped mainstream historians and academics from promoting such nonsense for decades.   As previously noted, Swanson has combined the two versions of the 'disappearing horses' fable. No graves needed to be dug because the bodies were disposed of in quicksand, though horse-swallowing quicksand pits only exist in movies and TV shows from the 1960s – and in bestsellers that begin with the words, "This story is true." And in this particular version of the fable, Herold didn't have to lead the horses into the mythical quicksand, he just led them to it. But what Swanson leaves out is an explanation of how Herold single-handedly drug or pushed those half-ton horse carcasses into a fictional quicksand pit. The only way that could actually happen is in a cartoon.   In any event, after allegedly spending five long days lounging in a Maryland pine thicket, our antiheroes supposedly emerged to attempt a crossing of the Potomac River in a boat supplied by local fisherman Henry Rowland. Their first attempt though failed when the 'pair that couldn't row straight' supposedly paddled the wrong direction and ended up in Nanjemoy Creek, still on the Maryland side of the Potomac. Not to worry though – they went to a farm owned by Peregrine Davis and operated by his son-in-law, John Hughes, who happily put his life on the line by feeding and sheltering the fugitives.   The next night, April 21, Booth and Herold chose not to attempt a second crossing of the Potomac, for reasons never explained by historians. It had been a full week since the assassination and the most wanted men in America had failed to put much distance at all between themselves and Washington, but they apparently weren't in any hurry.       Elizabeth Quesenberry and her home   The dynamic duo allegedly made a second attempt the next night and successfully navigated into Machodoc Creek, near the home of Elizabeth Quesenberry. They arrived at Quesenberry's home at around 1:00 PM on April 23. The lady of the house promptly sent for Thomas Harbin, who was reportedly Thomas Jones' brother-in-law. Harbin arrived at about 3:00 PM with horses and two associates, William Bryant and Joseph Baden. The five men then rode to the home of Dr. Richard Stuart, who was apparently related in some way to General Robert E. Lee.      Thomas Harbin      Dr. Richard Stuart   Stuart directed the party, which arrived at around 8:00 PM, to the cabin of a freed slave by the name of William Lucas – because, you know, freed slaves were highly motivated to assist Lincoln's alleged assassin. From there, Booth and Herold were supposedly transported by son Charley Lucas to Port Conway hidden under a load of straw in a wagon. In Port Conway, the fugitive pair hooked up with three Confederate soldiers by the names of Mortimer Ruggles, Absalom Bainbridge and William Jett, who by some accounts had been under the command of notorious Confederate intelligence operative John S. Mosby (Mosby, by the way, would soon enthusiastically campaign for and serve in the cabinet of Ulysses S. Grant, the man who had defeated his supposedly beloved Confederacy).   Booth, Herold, Ruggles, Jett and Bainbridge, along with a few horses, purportedly took a ferry across the Rappahannock River. At approximately 3:00 PM on April 24, 1865, they arrived at the Garrett home. The gravely injured, or not so gravely injured, John Wilkes Booth stayed at the home while Herold rode on to Bowling Green with his new friends. Booth spent the night with one of the Garrett sons while Herold and Bainbridge slept at the home of Joseph and Elizabeth Clarke. Herold returned the next day with Ruggles and Bainbridge, though Jett stayed behind in Bowling Green, from where he would soon lead a posse to the Garrett farm.      Ruggles    Bainbridge (both circa 1890)    Jett   Booth and Herold spent the next night, April 25, supposedly locked in the Garretts' tobacco barn, making them easy prey for the posse that would soon arrive. The Reverend Richard Garrett, however, who was just eleven at the time of the assassination, would later note that the barn actually had double doors on all four sides and large windows in the upper story. William H. Garrett would add that some of those doors and windows fastened on the inside. There was, therefore, no way to actually lock the fugitives inside, another unfortunate fact that has been swept aside by historians.   The posse that would allegedly end the life of John Wilkes Booth arrived at the Garrett home at around 2:00 AM on April 26, 1865. A few hours later, Booth, or someone playing the part of Booth, had been shot. In due time, Dr. Richard Stuart, William Bryant, Elizabeth Quesenberry, Samuel Cox, Thomas Jones, the Garrett sons, and various others were arrested and taken to the Old Capital Prison. Curiously though, they were all freed without being charged. All but Dr. Mudd.     Sign commemorating fictional historical events   Meanwhile, as Booth and Herold were following their convoluted path to the Garrett farm, a massive manhunt spearheaded by Edwin Stanton was underway. We shall pick up there on the next outing. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part XII by Dave McGowan | Mar 13, 2015 Before resuming where we left off, I need to tack on some info here that should have been included in earlier installments. First off, there were, as it turns out, at least three additional suspicious deaths that followed closely on the heels of the Lincoln assassination, so let's take a quick look at those. And as I'm sure it will be recalled, these deaths are in addition to all the other curious deaths and confinements that have previously been discussed.   First up for review is Colonel Levi C. Turner, who was appointed Assistant Judge Advocate for the Army on August 5, 1862, which positioned him to be second-in-command to Judge Advocate Holt during the farcical 'trial of the conspirators.' The colonel also worked closely with notorious NDP chief Lafayette Baker during and after the Civil War to investigate suspected subversive activities. Turner died of unstated causes on March 13, 1867, less than two years after Lincoln was slain and about sixteen months before Baker himself turned up dead.   Also up for review is our old friend Silas Cobb, the guy who was in charge of guarding the Navy Yard Bridge and enforcing the curfew on the night of the assassination. Cobb was the accommodating gent who allegedly allowed both Booth and Herold to escape from Washington and then failed to offer any reasonable explanation for his actions, and of course suffered no repercussions for those actions. Cobb turned up dead in November 1867, two-and-a-half years after Lincoln was shot. According to reports, he was the victim of a drowning accident.   Finally we have Henri Beaumont de Sainte-Marie, the chap who was credited with tipping off authorities to the whereabouts of John Surratt, ultimately leading to Surratt's arrest, extradition, and failed prosecution. De Sainte-Marie died at the relatively young age of forty-one while still awaiting a claims court decision on the hefty reward promised for information leading to Surratt's capture.   I also discussed in a previous post the fact that former British First Lady Cherie Blair is a descendant of the Booth clan, thereby demonstrating that the Booth family has continued to wield political power into the modern era. What I didn't know at the time was that another member of the Booth dynasty wielded considerable power on this side of the Atlantic right up until her death at the infamous Watergate Apartments on October 9, 1987.   She was hiding right in plain sight, disguised only by the "e" that her branch of the family had added to the Booth name to mask the association. That wielder of power was none other than Clare Boothe Luce, who, along with her husband Henry Luce – a Skull and Bonesman who became a publishing magnate, launching such influential magazines as Time, Life, Fortune, and Sports Illustrated – was a longtime asset of the Central Intelligence Agency.   Boothe was born on March 10, 1903 to unmarried parents who lived a shadowy life and moved around a lot. Her mother was known to use at least three aliases and her father used at least two. Clare briefly flirted with being an actress before embarking on a career as a journalist, war correspondent, politician and diplomat. Curiously, another woman born in 1903 and also known as Claire Luce also became an actress, creating a good deal of confusion after Clare Boothe became Clare Luce.    Clare Boothe Luce   Clare Boothe Luce had the distinction of being the first American woman named to a key diplomatic post, serving as the US Ambassador to Italy from 1953 to 1956. In 1959, she very briefly served as the US Ambassador to Brazil before resigning. From 1943 to 1947, she had served in the House of Representatives, representing Connecticut. During that time, she served on the House Military Affairs Committee, because she naturally knew a lot about military affairs.   During the 1960s, her and her husband busied themselves with sponsoring anti-Castro groups seeking to return Cuba to its former status as a US puppet-state. In 1973, she was appointed to the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, because she obviously also knew a lot about foreign intelligence. In 1983, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Boothe Luce was also a Dame of Malta.   It is a strange world indeed when well over a century after the first acknowledged assassination of a sitting US president (historians don't generally have much to say about the untimely deaths of William Harrison, who served for just one month, or Zachary Taylor, who served for some sixteen months), members of the alleged assassin's family were still wielding considerable political power on both sides of the Atlantic. Last time I checked, there weren't any members of the Guiteau, Czolgosz, Oswald or Sirhan families occupying such positions of power.   And now, we return to our regularly scheduled programming ….   While Booth and Herold were supposedly taking their time getting from Washington to Garrett's farm (traveling a distance of less than 100 miles in a week-and-a-half), the largest manhunt in the young nation's history was underway, coordinated by our old friend, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. From the outset, Stanton's goal seemed to be to avoid actually apprehending John Wilkes Booth and some of the other alleged conspirators.   Stanton had considerable manpower at his disposal, including idle US military forces in Washington, the Metropolitan Police, Lafayette Baker's detective force, US Cavalry forces, and provost marshals. Working closely with Stanton were Metro Police Superintendent A.C. Richards, Washington Provost Marshall Major James O'Beirne, and General Christopher Columbus Augur, commander of US military forces in Washington. To say that Stanton misappropriated the available manpower would be a rather charitable assessment.    A.C. Richards   According to Bill O'Reilly's error-filled bestseller, Killing Lincoln, there were three routes leading out of Washington into Virginia – the Georgetown Aqueduct, Long Bridge, and Benning's Bridge – and just one, the Navy Yard Bridge, leading into Maryland. The Confederacy-friendly path into Maryland was by far the most likely route for an assassin to take, so it naturally was completely ignored.   The first troops to find themselves accidentally on the correct route were led by a David Dana. Dana just happened to be the brother of Assistant Secretary of War Charles Dana, who served directly under Stanton and who decided that the patrol's presence on the trail of the alleged assassins was pointless and instead sent his brother's troops on a wild goose chase. Major O'Beirne also found himself accidentally on the right trail, so he of course was recalled to Washington.   As previously mentioned, Stanton's first dispatch after the shooting of Lincoln was not written until 1:30 AM and was not sent until 2:15 AM, about four hours after the shot was fired. That dispatch made no mention of John Wilkes Booth, despite the fact that numerous witnesses supposedly (but not actually) immediately identified Booth as the assailant. Booth's name didn't appear in a telegram until 4:15 AM, conveniently too late to make the morning papers. A telegram sent to the police chiefs of northern cities contained no mention of the name Booth.   Initial press reports, based on information leaked by Stanton himself, identified John Surratt as the perpetrator of the fictional attack on the Seward family. When it later became known that Surratt was nowhere near Washington at the time of the attack, Lewis Powell/Paine, who bore no physical resemblance whatsoever to John Surratt, was substituted in as the perpetrator of the alleged assassination attempt.      Christopher Columbus Augur     James O'Beirne   The first telegram dispatched by the War Department was a curiously worded message to General Grant, which read: "The President was assassinated tonight at Ford's Theatre at 10:30 tonight & cannot live. The wound is a pistol shot through the head. Secretary Seward & his son Frederick, were also assassinated at their residence & are in a dangerous condition." One would think that it would go without saying that someone who had been "assassinated" would be in "a dangerous condition." Luckily though, neither of the Sewards were actually assassinated, although news of their 'deaths' quickly circulated around Washington.   One of the earliest actions taken by investigators was raiding the room at the Kirkwood Hotel allegedly rented by George Atzerodt for the purpose of assassinating Andrew Johnson. According to Guttridge and Neff, writing in Dark Union, "The room was registered as Atzerodt's but had not been slept in. The Kirkwood's day clerk, who had entered Room 126 earlier that morning, found nothing and said so. His testimony was ignored." When detectives entered that very same empty and unused room, they allegedly uncovered a wealth of evidence.   Supposedly recovered from the room were a bankbook issued to John Wilkes Booth, a loaded revolver, three boxes of pistol cartridges, a map of the southern states, a Bowie knife, and a handkerchief with Booth's mother's name embroidered on it. Booth's room at the National Hotel, Room 228, was similarly raided with additional evidence supposedly recovered, including a business card containing John Surratt's name and a letter from Samuel Arnold conveniently implicating both he and McLaughlin, despite the fact that Arnold and McLaughlin, like Surratt, were nowhere near Washington at the time of the assassination.   "Wanted" posters issued by the War Department were wildly, and probably deliberately, inaccurate. John Surratt's and David Herold's names were both spelled incorrectly, the photo of Herold was of him as a schoolboy, which clearly wasn't an accurate representation of how he looked circa 1865, and the photo of Surratt wasn't John Surratt at all. In a blatant act of historical revisionism, corrected posters were issued much later. One widely circulated poster that was issued after Lewis Paine was already in custody inexplicably offered a reward for Paine and contained a richly detailed 160-word description of the already incarcerated suspect, along with a mere 42-word description of the guy who was still at large, John Wilkes Booth.      Original "Wanted" poster     Revised "Wanted" posters   The first alleged conspirator to be arrested was the hapless Ned Spangler, who was taken into custody at Ford's Theatre on the night of the assassination. Samuel Arnold and Michael McLaughlin, implicated through what appears to have been planted evidence, were arrested on April 17, 1865, the former at Fort Monroe and the latter in Baltimore. Later that night, Mary Surratt and Lewis Powell were both arrested at Surratt's boardinghouse. George Adzerodt was taken into custody in the early morning hours of April 20 in Maryland, following – by one account – a tip from his police detective brother. Dr. Mudd was arrested on April 24, four days after Captain William Wood, a close associate of Stanton and the warden of the Old Capitol Prison, had begun watching his home.   Why authorities drug their feet for several days before arresting Mudd even while rounding up some 2,000 other suspects who ultimately were not charged is another of the many unanswered questions surrounding the Lincoln assassination and its aftermath. In any event, that left just two of the alleged conspirators at large, David Herold and John Wilkes Booth. Finding them was going to require a specially assembled team – a team that would uncannily know just where to go.   The elite posse was assembled by NDP chief Lafayette Baker on April 24. The group thereafter all but made a beeline to the area around Garrett's farm. How they knew to go there is a question not often addressed by historians. For the record, Baker claimed that he was tipped off by "an old Negro," but said person was never identified and he or she never stepped forward to collect the substantial reward offered. A House Committee noted that, "upon what information Colonel Baker proceeded in sending out the expedition … is in no manner disclosed or intimated in his official report."   An 1867 Minority Report of the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives offered what were, by today's standards, shockingly frank assessments of Baker's character, such as, "Although examined on oath, time and again, and on various occasions, it is doubtful whether he [Baker] has in any one thing told the truth even by accident," and "there can be no doubt that of his many previous outrages, entitling him to unenviable immortality, he has added that of willful and deliberate perjury; and we are glad to know that no one member of the committee deems any statement made by him as worthy of the slightest credit. What a blush of shame will tinge the cheek of the American student in future ages, when he reads that this miserable wretch for years held, as it were, in the hollow of his hand, the liberties of the American people."   The posse assembled by Baker was led by his cousin, Lt. Luther Baker, and Lt. Col. Everton Conger, who had served as an aide to Lafayette Baker. Both had returned to civilian life and were recruited specifically to lead the mission. They were joined by Lt. Edward Doherty and a detachment of twenty-five soldiers. After completing the mission, all involved signed quitclaims and collected a substantial amount of reward money. One of the troopers, as fate would have it, had met Booth previously; some 33 years later, on April 20, 1898, he issued the following published statement: "It was not Booth nor did it resemble him …" Many Americans had reached that conclusion years earlier.      Edward Doherty      Everton Conger   At the Garrett home, the guy later identified as John Wilkes Booth introduced himself as John W. Boyd. Herold was introduced as his cousin, David Boyd. During the standoff in the barn with the pair's would-be captors, the name "Booth" was never spoken. When Herold surrendered and exited the barn, leaving his companion behind, he insisted that he did not know the other man, who he claimed was named Boyd. Boyd/Booth was wearing a Rebel uniform and did not have on a ring that Booth reportedly always wore.   It was not until he had been shot and lay dying that the suspected assassin was addressed by Luther Baker as "Booth." According to Baker's account, the mortally wounded man "seemed surprised, opened his eyes wide, and looked about," as if he too was looking for the elusive John Wilkes Booth. At 7:15 AM on the morning of April 26, 1865, Booth/Boyd drew his last breath, some two-and-a-half hours after being shot, allegedly by Boston Corbett.   Mainstream authors and historians have labored long and hard to convince readers that Booth's body was positively identified, leaving no doubt in the public mind that justice had been served. James Swanson, for example, has written in Manhunt that, "On the Montauk, several men who knew Booth in life, including his doctor and dentist, were summoned aboard the ironclad to witness him in death. It was all very official. The War Department even issued an elaborate receipt to the notary who witnessed the testimony. During a careful autopsy …" The same James Swanson has also written, in Lincoln's Assassins, that, "When the assassin's body was brought back to Washington, the government took rigorous steps to confirm the identity of the man killed at Garrett's farm … Witnesses who knew Booth in life were summoned to identify him in death." William Hanchett, in The Lincoln Murder Conspiracies (his contemptible attempt to 'debunk' so-called 'conspiracy theories'), has claimed that "Booth's body was identified beyond any possibility of a mix-up at a coroner's inquest on April 27, 1865."   All such proclamations are rather brazen and unconscionable acts of historical revisionism. The reality is that the body was not autopsied and it was processed in-and-out of Washington in record time. A mere forty hours passed between the death of the man at Garrett's farm and the secret, late night disposal of his body, and that included the time needed to transport the corpse back to Washington. To this day, that initial burial site remains a mystery and several different versions of the disposal of the body have been published.   For reasons never explained in the historical record, the body was not transported back to Washington by the military detachment, but was instead escorted by only three men: Luther Baker, prisoner Willie Jett, and one unnamed soldier. Before reaching Washington, Jett somehow managed to, uhmm, 'escape.' The body was carried by steamer up the Potomac River, then transported by tugboat to the Washington Navy Yard and placed aboard the ironclad Montauk in the dead of night, at 1:45 AM on April 27, 1865, bypassing normal procedures. Before the day was done, the body would be covertly disposed of. The captain of the Montauk would later say that he "was not present at either time (arrival or disposal) or I should have put a stop to it." The commandant of the Navy Yard would add that, "The removal of the body was entirely without my knowledge, an unusual transaction."     Prosecutor John Bingham (left) and Judge Advocate Joseph Holt (center)   Dispatched to the Montauk to oversee the identification of the body were such disreputable characters as Surgeon General Barnes, Judge Advocate Joseph Holt, prosecutor/persecutor John Bingham, Stanton underlings Thomas Eckert and Lafayette Baker, and two of Baker's most trusted men, Luther Baker and Everton Conger. Edwin Stanton had ordered Lafayette Baker and Thomas Eckert to personally intercept the boat carrying the body and clandestinely get it aboard the Montauk.   During the alleged inquest, none of Booth's peers in the theater community, many of whom were present in Washington at the time, were brought onboard to ID the body. No members of the Booth family were enlisted to view the body. None of Booth's alleged co-conspirators, many of whom were being held on the very same ship, were allowed to ID the body. According to Dark Union, "thirteen people were permitted to view the body. All but the war photographer Alexander Gardner, his assistant, and a hotel clerk were connected with the War Department." If we're being honest here, that should read, "all but possibly the hotel clerk were connected with the War Department."   Even within the government's handpicked and limited cast of witnesses, there was disagreement as to whether the body was that of Booth. Dr. John Frederick May, who had previously seen Booth as a patient, noted that "there is no resemblance in that corpse to Booth, nor can I believe it to be him." May added that the corpse "looks to me much older, and in appearance much more freckled than he was. I do not recollect that he was at all freckled." Dr. May would later write that the corpse's "right limb was greatly contused, and perfectly black from a fracture of one of the long bones." Surgeon General Barnes' report to Stanton, however, held that it was "the left leg and foot" that were injured and "encased in an appliance of splints and bandages," thus clouding the waters even on such straightforward issues as which of the corpse's legs was injured.      Dr. John Frederick May   After the hasty identification charade, and without anyone who was actually close to Booth in life having seen the body, and without any public display of the body, and without any photographs of the body that would ever see the light of day, the corpse was quickly disposed of by either Lafayette Baker and Thomas Eckert, or Lafayette and Luther Baker, depending upon who is telling the tale. Following the announcement that the body had been disappeared, shouts of "hoax!" rocked Washington, with many convinced that Booth hadn't been captured or killed and was still free.   On July 28, 1866, Senator Garrett Davis of Kentucky voiced his doubts about the identification of Booth: "I have never seen any satisfactory evidence that Booth was killed." Senator Reverdy Johnson of Maryland, who had played a role in the mock trial, came back with: "I submit to my friend from Kentucky that there are some things that we must take judicial notice of, just as well as that Julius Caesar is dead."   Davis though remained decidedly unconvinced: "I would rather have better testimony of the fact. I want it proved that Booth was in that barn. I cannot conceive, if he was in the barn, why he was not taken alive. I have never seen anybody, or the evidence of anybody, that identified Booth after he is said to have been killed. Why so much secrecy about it? … There is a mystery and a most inexplicable mystery to my mind about the whole affair … [Booth] could have been captured just as well alive as dead. It would have been much more satisfactory to have brought him up here alive and to have inquired of him to reveal the whole transaction … [or] bring his body up here … let all who had seen him playing, all who associated with him on the stage or in the green room or at the taverns and other public places, have had access to his body to have identified it."      Senator Reverdy Johnson      Senator Garrett Davis   There was no way the powers-that-be were going to allow that to happen, of course, since the body clearly wasn't that of John Wilkes Booth. Had it been, the government surely would have taken the actions necessary to convince a skeptical public. But such actions weren't really necessary in 1865, just as they aren't today. The omnipotent ones can tell us, for example, that Osama bin Laden was killed and his body promptly disposed of – and the majority of us will accept it as the gospel truth.   And those malcontents who choose not to accept a proclamation that lacks any objective proof? Well, they don't really matter. Just as the voices of reason didn't really matter 150 years ago.   Source:  Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part XII | The Center for an Informed America     RIP Dave McGowan March 25, 1960–November 22, 2015 Satanic Occult Symbols In Washington D.C. The pentagon is an infinite occult symbol — it is the center of a pentagram and a pentagram fits perfectly inside a pentagon.   Obelisks are erect phallic (penis) symbols related to the Egyptian Sun god, Ra. The four sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level, each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet in width, which is equal to 666 inches each side. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. The Exact Ratio Of King Nebuchadnezzar's Golden Image (which was 90 x 9 feet, a 10-to-1 ratio). The new grand PHALLUS (obelisk) symbol representing the sinister power of the global Illuminati elite is the ONE WORLD TRADE CENTER, replacing the old World Trade Center in New York. The new architectural wonder is exactly 1,776 feet tall, featuring The Great Pyramid in it's design. This evidence that the satanic plot for World Government has existed for millennia and is perpetuated from generation to generation by occult organizations. "The word 'obelisk' literally means 'Baal's Shaft' or Baal's organ of reproduction. This should be especially shocking when we realize that we have a gigantic obelisk in our nation's capital known as the Washington Monument." The Illuminati's push for global governance began in 1775 and became more visible the following year in 1776 during the Revolutionary War. While the 13 colonies broke from Britain, their leadership included high-ranking Freemasons. George Washington was a senior Mason, along with multiple signers of the Declaration of Independence. Washington D.C.'s layout and monuments carry clear Masonic symbols. The mall in Washington DC is laid out so the gardens and streets form the image of an owl. The owl is representative of the mythical goddess, Lilith. The street design in Washington, D.C., has been laid out in such a manner that certain Satanic symbols are depicted by the streets, cul-de-sacs and rotaries. This design was created in 1791, a few years after Freemasonry assumed the leadership of the New World Order, in 1782. George Washington (a 33° Freemason) selected French Freemason Pierre Charles L'Enfant to design the city's layout in Washington D.C. The boundaries of the city, established by George Washington in 1791, form a square 10 miles long on each side, centered on the originally proposed location for the Washington Monument. The east-west diagonal of the square crosses over the Capitol building and the north-south diagonal crosses over the White House. The length of the north-south and east-west diagonals is 10 miles times the square root of 2, or 14.142 miles. This distance converts to 43,455 ancient Egyptian royal cubits, the same figure as the ratio between the Great Pyramid and the dimensions of the earth. The height of the Great Pyramid is 481.13 feet, divided by 5,280 = .0911231 miles. The mean radius of the earth is 3,960 miles, divided by .0911231 = 43,457. The perimeter of the Great Pyramid is 3,023 feet, divided by 5,280 = .5725 miles. The mean circumference of the earth is 24,880 miles, divided by .5725 = 43,458. 3,960 miles (radius of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 280 (number of cubits in the height of the Great Pyramid) 24,880 miles (circumference of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 1,760 (cubits in the perimeter of the Great Pyramid) Converting the radius and circumference of the earth to cubits yields the same results.   If you draw the pentagram and hexagram symbols together, you can see three sides of a cross. Finishing the symbol on the land sitting in front of the White House reveals a perfectly symmetrical Knights Templar cross.   The 4 sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet long, which is equal to 666 inches. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. The obelisk is representative of the male sex organ, worship in nearly all pagan cultures. It is a symbol of man's carnal power and might. Satanism and the occult are saturated with sexual perversion, child-molesting, and human sacrifices. Most worshippers in these groups deny such claims, but some have openly professed it,   Above the dome of the Capitol building stands Lady Libertas, the goddess Isis.   Guarding the entrance to the Capitol building is Nimrod (Baal) in the likeness of the Roman god Mars, whom the Egyptians called Osiris. As you can see from the image below this entrance is identical to that of the Roman Pantheon of the Gods - as well as the Greek Pantheon.   There are several significant buildings in the District of Columbia with these ancient designs, including The White House.   The central part of the Supreme Court building is modeled after the Temple of Artemis, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world.   The George Washington Masonic Memorial, modeled after descriptions of the Pharos of Alexandria - another wonder of the ancient world, sits across the Potomac in Alexandria, Virginia just inside the diagonal square border of D.C.   This statue of Washington in the Smithsonian Museum of American History was modeled after descriptions of the statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The museum is aligned to the cardinal directions; the statue sits at the western end of the main floor facing east. Compare this portrayal of Washington to the images of Zeus and Baphomet    "Historian/author Ralph Epperson has spent many years researching the history of the Great Seal and has discovered that those who designed the two circles committed America to what has been called 'A Secret Destiny.' This future 'destiny' is so unpleasant that those who wanted the changes it entails had to conceal that truth in symbols."   Condoleezza Rice at the United Nations in 2005 with the numbers 666 behind her.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant">Timeline *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant">c. 1440 BC (traditional date) — Exodus *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> c. 1200–1000 BC — Late Bronze Age Collapse Major civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean collapse. Trade networks break down. Often viewed as one of the greatest disruptions of the ancient world. 722 BC — Fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel Assyrian Conquest of Israel. Assyria conquers the Kingdom of Israel. Associated with the "Ten Lost Tribes" tradition. 586 BC — First Temple Destroyed Babylon conquers Jerusalem. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The First Temple refers to the temple built in Jerusalem that is traditionally associated with King Solomon. A very simple timeline: c. 960 BC (traditional date) First Temple Built According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon builds a temple in Jerusalem. It becomes the central religious site for the Kingdom of Israel. The most sacred object inside was the Ark of the Covenant, which was said to contain the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. 930 BC Kingdom Splits After Solomon's reign, the kingdom divides into: Northern Kingdom (Israel) Southern Kingdom (Judah) Jerusalem and the Temple remain in Judah. 722 BC Northern Kingdom Falls The Neo-Assyrian Empire conquers the northern kingdom. Judah and Jerusalem survive for another century. 586 BC First Temple Destroyed Nebuchadnezzar II and the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquer Jerusalem. The city is burned. The Temple is destroyed. Many leading inhabitants are deported to Babylon. This period is known as the Babylonian Exile. This is the event your timeline entry refers to. What happened to the Ark? Nobody knows for certain. The Ark of the Covenant disappears from reliable historical records before or during the Babylonian conquest. Theories include: Destroyed during the invasion. Hidden by priests. Taken to another region. Never existed as described in later traditions. There is no confirmed archaeological evidence showing what became of it. 539 BC Babylon Falls Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire conquers Babylon. c. 516 BC Second Temple Built The Persians allow Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple. This rebuilt structure becomes known as the Second Temple. 70 AD Second Temple Destroyed The Roman Empire destroys Jerusalem and the Second Temple during a Jewish revolt. So when you see: 586 BC — First Temple Destroyed it is shorthand for: "The Babylonians captured Jerusalem, destroyed Solomon's Temple, and carried many inhabitants into exile in Babylon." That event is one of the major turning points in Jewish history because it marks the end of the First Temple era and the beginning of the Babylonian Exile. 539 BC — Cyrus the Great Persian Empire conquers Babylon. Jews permitted to return. 516 BC — Second Temple Completed Jerusalem's Second Temple is completed after the return from Babylonian exile. Begins the Second Temple period that lasts until 70 AD. 27 BC — Roman Empire Established Augustus becomes Rome's first emperor. Marks the transition from Republic to Empire. 1st Century AD — Origins of Christianity and the Early Church Christianity emerges within the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church traces its origins to this period. AD 43–47 — Romans Establish London (Londinium) Shortly after the Roman conquest of Britain, the Romans establish London. 70 AD — Destruction of the Second Temple Roman forces destroy the Second Temple in Jerusalem. 313 AD — Edict of Milan Christianity legalized within the Roman Empire. 325 AD — First Council of Nicaea Establishes foundational Christian doctrine. Produces the Nicene Creed. 380 AD — Christianity Becomes State Religion Edict of Thessalonica. Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman Empire. 476 AD — Fall of the Western Roman Empire Traditionally marks the end of the ancient Roman Empire in Western Europe. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 570 AD — Birth of Muhammad refers to Muhammad, the central figure of Islam. 570 AD — Muhammad is born in Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia). 610 AD — According to Islamic tradition, he begins receiving revelations from God through the angel Gabriel. 622 AD — The Hijra, his migration from Mecca to Medina. This event marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. 632 AD — Muhammad dies in Medina. What is the connection to the Quran? Muslims believe the Quran is the word of God revealed to Muhammad over about 23 years. Muhammad did not write the Quran himself according to Islamic tradition. The revelations were: Recited by Muhammad, Memorized by followers, Written down by scribes, Collected into the Quran after his death. 570 AD — Birth of Muhammad "Birth of the man through whom the Quran was revealed, according to Islamic belief." Just as: Jesus is central to Christianity, Moses is central to Judaism, Muhammad is the central prophetic figure in Islam. Muhammad's First Marriage Around age 25, Muhammad married Khadija bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy widow who was older than he was (traditionally reported to be about 40). They remained married for about 25 years. During Khadija's lifetime, Muhammad is generally described in Islamic sources as having no other wives. Khadija is highly revered in Islam. Later Marriages After Khadija's death, Muhammad married several women. Traditional Islamic explanations include: Providing support for widows of fallen followers. Forming alliances among tribes. Caring for women who lacked economic protection in a tribal society. Historians note that marriage in 7th-century Arabia often had social, political, and economic functions beyond modern romantic expectations. The Most Controversial Question: Aisha The most debated marriage is to Aisha. Traditional Islamic sources, including some hadith collections, report that: Aisha was betrothed at a young age. The marriage was consummated when she was nine years old. Many Muslims accept these traditional reports as historically accurate. However, some modern Muslim scholars argue that: The age reports may be incorrect. Other historical clues suggest she may have been older, perhaps in her teens. The evidence is debated, and there is no universal agreement. Why Is This Controversial Today? Modern societies generally view marriage to a nine-year-old as unacceptable and harmful. Defenders of the traditional account often argue: Standards for marriage differed across ancient and medieval societies. One should evaluate historical figures within their historical context. Critics argue: Regardless of historical norms, such an age is ethically problematic. Historical Context Child marriages occurred in many parts of the ancient and medieval world, including: Europe, The Middle East, Asia, Some royal and noble families. That context helps explain why such marriages occurred historically, though it does not resolve modern ethical debates about them. What Historians Generally Agree On Most historians agree that: Muhammad was a real historical figure. He married multiple wives. Aisha was one of those wives. Traditional Islamic sources report a very young age for Aisha. The main disagreement is whether the traditional age reports are fully reliable and how those reports should be interpreted today. 610 AD — First Quranic Revelations 622 AD — Hijra Migration from Mecca to Medina. Beginning of the Islamic calendar. 632–750 AD — Early Islamic Expansion Creates one of the largest empires in history. 711 AD — Muslim Conquest of Iberia Umayyad Conquest of Hispania. Islamic rule begins in much of Spain. Major turning point in European and Islamic history. 800 AD — Charlemagne Crowned Emperor Crowned Emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III. Foundation event for the Holy Roman Empire tradition. 886 AD — Alfred the Great Reoccupies London London is fortified following Viking invasions. The modern City of London traces many of its legal traditions and boundaries to the medieval period. 925–1384 — The Low Countries within the Holy Roman Empire The regions that later become Belgium and the Netherlands remain linked to the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. c. 950 AD — First Documented Habsburg Family Earliest historical references to the Habsburg dynasty. 962 AD — Holy Roman Empire Formally Established Coronation of Otto I. Otto I crowned emperor. Often regarded as the formal beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. c. 1000–1200 — Romani Migration Appears in Historical Records Migration from India gradually becomes visible in European records. 1020 AD — Habsburg Castle Built The castle from which the Habsburg family takes its name. 1054 AD — Great Schism Formal split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Shapes later divisions between Western Europe, Byzantium, Russia, and the Balkans. 1066 AD — Norman Conquest of England One of the most consequential events in English history. Reshapes law, land ownership, language, and government. 1095–1291 — Crusades Series of wars involving Christian and Muslim powers. Influences trade, politics, and religious relations for centuries. The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part I: The Eight Families The Four Horsemen of Banking (Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase, Citigroup and Wells Fargo) own the Four Horsemen of Oil (Exxon Mobil, Royal Dutch/Shell, BP Amoco and Chevron Texaco); in tandem with Deutsche Bank, BNP, Barclays and other European old money behemoths.  But their monopoly over the global economy does not end at the edge of the oil patch. According to company 10K filings to the SEC, the Four Horsemen of Banking are among the top ten stock holders of virtually every Fortune 500 corporation. [1] So who then are the stockholders in these money center banks? This information is guarded much more closely. My queries to bank regulatory agencies regarding stock ownership in the top 25 US bank holding companies were given Freedom of Information Act status, before being denied on "national security" grounds.  This is rather ironic, since many of the bank's stockholders reside in Europe. One important repository for the wealth of the global oligarchy that owns these bank holding companies is US Trust Corporation – founded in 1853 and now owned by Bank of America.  A recent US Trust Corporate Director and Honorary Trustee was Walter Rothschild.  Other directors included Daniel Davison of JP Morgan Chase, Richard Tucker of Exxon Mobil, Daniel Roberts of Citigroup and Marshall Schwartz of Morgan Stanley. [2] J. W. McCallister, an oil industry insider with House of Saud connections, wrote in The Grim Reaper that information he acquired from Saudi bankers cited 80% ownership of the New York Federal Reserve Bank- by far the most powerful Fed branch- by just eight families, four of which reside in the US.  They are the Goldman Sachs, Rockefellers, Lehmans and Kuhn Loebs of New York; the Rothschilds of Paris and London; the Warburgs of Hamburg; the Lazards of Paris; and the Israel Moses Seifs of Rome. CPA Thomas D. Schauf corroborates McCallister's claims, adding that ten banks control all twelve Federal Reserve Bank branches.  He names N.M. Rothschild of London, Rothschild Bank of Berlin, Warburg Bank of Hamburg, Warburg Bank of Amsterdam, Lehman Brothers of New York, Lazard Brothers of Paris, Kuhn Loeb Bank of New York, Israel Moses Seif Bank of Italy, Goldman Sachs of New York and JP Morgan Chase Bank of New York.  Schauf lists William Rockefeller, Paul Warburg, Jacob Schiff and James Stillman as individuals who own large shares of the Fed. [3]  The Schiffs are insiders at Kuhn Loeb. The Stillmans are Citigroup insiders, who married into the Rockefeller clan at the turn of the century. Eustace Mullins came to the same conclusions in his book The Secrets of the Federal Reserve, in which he displays charts connecting the Fed and its member banks to the families of Rothschild, Warburg, Rockefeller and the others. [4] The control that these banking families exert over the global economy cannot be overstated and is quite intentionally shrouded in secrecy.  Their corporate media arm is quick to discredit any information exposing this private central banking cartel as "conspiracy theory".  Yet the facts remain. The House of Morgan The Federal Reserve Bank was born in 1913, the same year US banking scion J. Pierpont Morgan died and the Rockefeller Foundation was formed.  The House of Morgan presided over American finance from the corner of Wall Street and Broad, acting as quasi-US central bank since 1838, when George Peabody founded it in London. Peabody was a business associate of the Rothschilds.  In 1952 Fed researcher Eustace Mullins put forth the supposition that the Morgans were nothing more than Rothschild agents.  Mullins wrote that the Rothschilds, "…preferred to operate anonymously in the US behind the facade of J.P. Morgan & Company". [5] Author Gabriel Kolko stated, "Morgan's activities in 1895-1896 in selling US gold bonds in Europe were based on an alliance with the House of Rothschild." [6] The Morgan financial octopus wrapped its tentacles quickly around the globe. Morgan Grenfell operated in London. Morgan et Ce ruled Paris. The Rothschild's Lambert cousins set up Drexel & Company in Philadelphia. The House of Morgan catered to the Astors, DuPonts, Guggenheims, Vanderbilts and Rockefellers.  It financed the launch of AT&T, General Motors, General Electric and DuPont.  Like the London-based Rothschild and Barings banks, Morgan became part of the power structure in many countries. By 1890 the House of Morgan was lending to Egypt's central bank, financing Russian railroads, floating Brazilian provincial government bonds and funding Argentine public works projects.  A recession in 1893 enhanced Morgan's power.  That year Morgan saved the US government from a bank panic, forming a syndicate to prop up government reserves with a shipment of $62 million worth of Rothschild gold. [7] Morgan was the driving force behind Western expansion in the US, financing and controlling West-bound railroads through voting trusts.  In 1879 Cornelius Vanderbilt's Morgan-financed New York Central Railroad gave preferential shipping rates to John D. Rockefeller's budding Standard Oil monopoly, cementing the Rockefeller/Morgan relationship. The House of Morgan now fell under Rothschild and Rockefeller family control.  A New York Herald headline read, "Railroad Kings Form Gigantic Trust".  J. Pierpont Morgan, who once stated, "Competition is a sin", now opined gleefully, "Think of it.  All competing railroad traffic west of St. Louis placed in the control of about thirty men."[8] Morgan and Edward Harriman's banker Kuhn Loeb held a monopoly over the railroads, while banking dynasties Lehman, Goldman Sachs and Lazard joined the Rockefellers in controlling the US industrial base. [9] In 1903 Banker's Trust was set up by the Eight Families.  Benjamin Strong of Banker's Trust was the first Governor of the New York Federal Reserve Bank.  The 1913 creation of the Fed fused the power of the Eight Families to the military and diplomatic might of the US government.  If their overseas loans went unpaid, the oligarchs could now deploy US Marines to collect the debts.  Morgan, Chase and Citibank formed an international lending syndicate. The House of Morgan was cozy with the British House of Windsor and the Italian House of Savoy.  The Kuhn Loebs, Warburgs, Lehmans, Lazards, Israel Moses Seifs and Goldman Sachs also had close ties to European royalty.  By 1895 Morgan controlled the flow of gold in and out of the US.  The first American wave of mergers was in its infancy and was being promoted by the bankers.  In 1897 there were sixty-nine industrial mergers.  By 1899 there were twelve-hundred. In 1904 John Moody – founder of Moody's Investor Services – said it was impossible to talk of Rockefeller and Morgan interests as separate. [10] Public distrust of the combine spread.  Many considered them traitors working for European old money.  Rockefeller's Standard Oil, Andrew Carnegie's US Steel and Edward Harriman's railroads were all financed by banker Jacob Schiff at Kuhn Loeb, who worked closely with the European Rothschilds. Several Western states banned the bankers. Populist preacher William Jennings Bryan was thrice the Democratic nominee for President from 1896 -1908.  The central theme of his anti-imperialist campaign was that America was falling into a trap of "financial servitude to British capital".  William Howard Taft defeated Bryan in 1908, but by that time Taft's predecessor and mentor Teddy Roosevelt had been forced by this spreading populist wildfire to enact the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.  He then went after the Standard Oil Trust. In 1912 the Pujo hearings were held, addressing concentration of power on Wall Street.  That same year Mrs. Edward Harriman sold her substantial shares in New York's Guaranty Trust Bank to J.P. Morgan, creating Morgan Guaranty Trust.  Judge Louis Brandeis convinced President Woodrow Wilson to call for an end to interlocking board directorates.  In 1914 the Clayton Anti-Trust Act was passed. Jack Morgan – J. Pierpont's son and successor – responded by calling on Morgan clients Remington and Winchester to increase arms production. He argued that the US needed to enter WWI.  Goaded by the Carnegie Foundation and other oligarchy fronts, Wilson accommodated.  As Charles Tansill wrote in America Goes to War, "Even before the clash of arms, the French firm of Rothschild Freres cabled to Morgan & Company in New York suggesting the flotation of a loan of $100 million, a substantial part of which was to be left in the US to pay for French purchases of American goods." The House of Morgan financed half the US war effort, while receiving commissions for lining up contractors like GE, Du Pont, US Steel, Kennecott and ASARCO.  All were Morgan clients.  Morgan also financed the British Boer War in South Africa and the Franco-Prussian War.  The 1919 Paris Peace Conference was presided over by Morgan, which led both German and Allied reconstruction efforts. [11] In the 1930's populism resurfaced in America after Goldman Sachs, Lehman Bank and others profited from the Crash of 1929. [12]  House Banking Committee Chairman Louis McFadden (D-NY) said of the Great Depression, "It was no accident.  It was a carefully contrived occurrence…The international bankers sought to bring about a condition of despair here so they might emerge as rulers of us all". Sen. Gerald Nye (D-ND) chaired a munitions investigation in 1936.  Nye concluded that the House of Morgan had plunged the US into WWI to protect loans and create a booming arms industry.  Nye later produced a document titled The Next War, which cynically referred to "the old goddess of democracy trick", through which Japan could be used to lure the US into WWII. In 1937 Interior Secretary Harold Ickes warned of the influence of "America's 60 Families".  Historian Ferdinand Lundberg later penned a book of the exact same title. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas decried, "Morgan influence…the most pernicious one in industry and finance today." Jack Morgan responded by nudging the US towards WWII.  Morgan had close relations with the Iwasaki and Dan families – Japan's two wealthiest clans – who have owned Mitsubishi and Mitsui, respectively, since the companies emerged from 17th Century shogunates.  When Japan invaded Manchuria, slaughtering Chinese peasants at Nanking, Morgan downplayed the incident.  Morgan also had close relations with Italian fascist Benito Mussolini, while German Nazi Dr. Hjalmer Schacht was a Morgan Bank liaison during WWII.  After the war Morgan representatives met with Schacht at the Bank of International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland. [13] The House of Rockefeller BIS is the most powerful bank in the world, a global central bank for the Eight Families who control the private central banks of almost all Western and developing nations. The first President of BIS was Rockefeller banker Gates McGarrah- an official at Chase Manhattan and the Federal Reserve.  McGarrah was the grandfather of former CIA director Richard Helms.  The Rockefellers- like the Morgans- had close ties to London. David Icke writes in Children of the Matrix, that the Rockefellers and Morgans were just "gofers" for the European Rothschilds. [14] BIS is owned by the Federal Reserve, Bank of England, Bank of Italy, Bank of Canada, Swiss National Bank, Nederlandsche Bank, Bundesbank and Bank of France. Historian Carroll Quigley wrote in his epic book Tragedy and Hope that BIS was part of a plan, "to create a world system of financial control in private hands able to dominate the political system of each country and the economy of the world as a whole…to be controlled in a feudalistic fashion by the central banks of the world acting in concert by secret agreements." The US government had a historical distrust of BIS, lobbying unsuccessfully for its demise at the 1944 post-WWII Bretton Woods Conference.  Instead the Eight Families' power was exacerbated, with the Bretton Woods creation of the IMF and the World Bank.  The US Federal Reserve only took shares in BIS in September 1994. [15] BIS holds at least 10% of monetary reserves for at least 80 of the world's central banks, the IMF and other multilateral institutions.  It serves as financial agent for international agreements, collects information on the global economy and serves as lender of last resort to prevent global financial collapse. BIS promotes an agenda of monopoly capitalist fascism.  It gave a bridge loan to Hungary in the 1990's to ensure privatization of that country's economy.  It served as conduit for Eight Families funding of Adolf Hitler- led by the Warburg's J. Henry Schroeder and Mendelsohn Bank of Amsterdam.  Many researchers assert that BIS is at the nadir of global drug money laundering. [16] It is no coincidence that BIS is headquartered in Switzerland, favorite hiding place for the wealth of the global aristocracy and headquarters for the P-2 Italian Freemason's Alpina Lodge and Nazi International.  Other institutions which the Eight Families control include the World Economic Forum, the International Monetary Conference and the World Trade Organization. Bretton Woods was a boon to the Eight Families.  The IMF and World Bank were central to this "new world order".  In 1944 the first World Bank bonds were floated by Morgan Stanley and First Boston.  The French Lazard family became more involved in House of Morgan interests.  Lazard Freres- France's biggest investment bank- is owned by the Lazard and David-Weill families- old Genoese banking scions represented by Michelle Davive.  A recent Chairman and CEO of Citigroup was Sanford Weill. In 1968 Morgan Guaranty launched Euro-Clear, a Brussels-based bank clearing system for Eurodollar securities. It was the first such automated endeavor.  Some took to calling Euro-Clear "The Beast".  Brussels serves as headquarters for the new European Central Bank and for NATO.  In 1973 Morgan officials met secretly in Bermuda to illegally resurrect the old House of Morgan, twenty years before the Glass Steagal Act was repealed.  Morgan and the Rockefellers provided the financial backing for Merrill Lynch, boosting it into the Big 5 of US investment banking. Merrill is now part of Bank of America. John D. Rockefeller used his oil wealth to acquire Equitable Trust, which had gobbled up several large banks and corporations by the 1920's.  The Great Depression helped consolidate Rockefeller's power.  His Chase Bank merged with Kuhn Loeb's Manhattan Bank to form Chase Manhattan, cementing a long-time family relationship.  The Kuhn-Loeb's had financed – along with Rothschilds – Rockefeller's quest to become king of the oil patch.  National City Bank of Cleveland provided John D. with the money needed to embark upon his monopolization of the US oil industry.  The bank was identified in Congressional hearings as being one of three Rothschild-owned banks in the US during the 1870's, when Rockefeller first incorporated as Standard Oil of Ohio. [17] One Rockefeller Standard Oil partner was Edward Harkness, whose family came to control Chemical Bank.  Another was James Stillman, whose family controlled Manufacturers Hanover Trust.  Both banks have merged under the JP Morgan Chase umbrella.  Two of James Stillman's daughters married two of William Rockefeller's sons. The two families control a big chunk of Citigroup as well. [18] In the insurance business, the Rockefellers control Metropolitan Life, Equitable Life, Prudential and New York Life.  Rockefeller banks control 25% of all assets of the 50 largest US commercial banks and 30% of all assets of the 50 largest insurance companies. [19]  Insurance companies- the first in the US was launched by Freemasons through their Woodman's of America- play a key role in the Bermuda drug money shuffle. Companies under Rockefeller control include Exxon Mobil, Chevron Texaco, BP Amoco, Marathon Oil, Freeport McMoran, Quaker Oats, ASARCO, United, Delta, Northwest, ITT, International Harvester, Xerox, Boeing, Westinghouse, Hewlett-Packard, Honeywell, International Paper, Pfizer, Motorola, Monsanto, Union Carbide and General Foods. The Rockefeller Foundation has close financial ties to both Ford and Carnegie Foundations.  Other family philanthropic endeavors include Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, General Education Board, Rockefeller University and the University of Chicago- which churns out a steady stream of far right economists as apologists for international capital, including Milton Friedman. The family owns 30 Rockefeller Plaza, where the national Christmas tree is lighted every year, and Rockefeller Center.  David Rockefeller was instrumental in the construction of the World Trade Center towers.  The main Rockefeller family home is a hulking complex in upstate New York known as Pocantico Hills.  They also own a 32-room 5th Avenue duplex in Manhattan, a mansion in Washington, DC, Monte Sacro Ranch in Venezuela, coffee plantations in Ecuador, several farms in Brazil, an estate at Seal Harbor, Maine and resorts in the Caribbean, Hawaii and Puerto Rico. [20] The Dulles and Rockefeller families are cousins.  Allen Dulles created the CIA, assisted the Nazis, covered up the Kennedy hit from his Warren Commission perch and struck a deal with the Muslim Brotherhood to create mind-controlled assassins. [21] Brother John Foster Dulles presided over the phony Goldman Sachs trusts before the 1929 stock market crash and helped his brother overthrow governments in Iran and Guatemala.  Both were Skull & Bones, Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) insiders and 33rd Degree Masons. [22] The Rockefellers were instrumental in forming the depopulation-oriented Club of Rome at their family estate in Bellagio, Italy.  Their Pocantico Hills estate gave birth to the Trilateral Commission.  The family is a major funder of the eugenics movement which spawned Hitler, human cloning and the current DNA obsession in US scientific circles. John Rockefeller Jr. headed the Population Council until his death. [23]  His namesake son is a Senator from West Virginia.  Brother Winthrop Rockefeller was Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas and the most powerful man in that state until he died in 2006.  In an October 1975 interview with Playboy magazine, Vice-President Nelson Rockefeller- who was also Governor of New York- articulated his family's patronizing worldview, "I am a great believer in planning- economic, social, political, military, total world planning." But of all the Rockefeller brothers, it is Trilateral Commission (TC) founder and former Chase Manhattan Chairman David who has spearheaded the family's fascist agenda on a global scale.  He defended the Shah of Iran, the South African apartheid regime and the Chilean Pinochet junta.  He was the biggest financier of the CFR, the TC and (during the Vietnam War) the Committee for an Effective and Durable Peace in Asia- a contract bonanza for those who made their living off the conflict. Nixon asked him to be Secretary of Treasury, but Rockefeller declined the job, knowing his power was much greater at the helm of the Chase.  Author Gary Allen writes in The Rockefeller File that in 1973, "David Rockefeller met with twenty-seven heads of state, including the rulers of Russia and Red China." Following the 1975 Nugan Hand Bank/CIA coup against Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, his British Crown-appointed successor Malcolm Fraser sped to the US, where he met with President Gerald Ford after conferring with David Rockefeller. [24] *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-18" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-18" data-testid= "conversation-turn-38" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part II: The Freemason BUS & The House of Rothschild In 1789 Alexander Hamilton became the first Treasury Secretary of the United States.  Hamilton was one of many Founding Fathers who were Freemasons. He had close relations with the Rothschild family which owns the Bank of England and leads the European Freemason movement.  George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Ethan Allen, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Brown and Roger Sherman were all Masons. Roger Livingston helped Sherman and Franklin write the Declaration of Independence. He gave George Washington his oaths of office while he was Grand Master of the New York Grand Lodge of Freemasons.  Washington himself was Grand Master of the Virginia Lodge.  Of the General Officers in the Revolutionary Army, thirty-three were Masons.  This was highly symbolic since 33rd Degree Masons become Illuminated. [1] Populist founding fathers led by John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and Thomas Paine- none of whom were Masons- wanted to completely severe ties with the British Crown, but were overruled by the Masonic faction led by Washington, Hamilton and Grand Master of the St. Andrews Lodge in Boston General Joseph Warren, who wanted to "defy Parliament but remain loyal to the Crown". St. Andrews Lodge was the hub of New World Masonry and began issuing Knights Templar Degrees in 1769. [2] All US Masonic lodges are to this day warranted by the British Crown, whom they serve as a global intelligence and counterrevolutionary subversion network. Their most recent initiative is the Masonic Child Identification Program (CHIP). According to Wikipedia, the CHIP programs allow parents the opportunity to create a kit of identifying materials for their child, free of charge. The kit contains a fingerprint card, a physical description, a video, computer disk, or DVD of the child, a dental imprint, and a DNA sample. The First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in 1774 under the Presidency of Peyton Randolph, who succeeded Washington as Grand Master of the Virginia Lodge.  The Second Continental Congress convened in 1775 under the Presidency of Freemason John Hancock.  Peyton's brother William succeeded him as Virginia Lodge Grand Master and became the leading proponent of centralization and federalism at the First Constitutional Convention in 1787.  The federalism at the heart of the US Constitution is identical to the federalism laid out in the Freemason's Anderson's Constitutions of 1723. William Randolph became the nation's first Attorney General and Secretary of State under George Washington. His family returned to England loyal to the Crown.  John Marshall, the nation's first Supreme Court Justice, was also a Mason. [3] When Benjamin Franklin journeyed to France to seek financial help for American revolutionaries, his meetings took place at Rothschild banks.  He brokered arms sales via German Mason Baron von Steuben.  His Committees of Correspondence operated through Freemason channels and paralleled a British spy network.  In 1776 Franklin became de facto Ambassador to France.  In 1779 he became Grand Master of the French Neuf Soeurs (Nine Sisters) Lodge, to which John Paul Jones and Voltaire belonged.  Franklin was also a member of the more secretive Royal Lodge of Commanders of the Temple West of Carcasonne, whose members included Frederick Prince of Whales. While Franklin preached temperance in the US, he cavorted wildly with his Lodge brothers in Europe.  Franklin served as Postmaster General from the 1750's to 1775 – a role traditionally relegated to British spies. With Rothschild financing Alexander Hamilton founded two New York banks, including Bank of New York. He died in a gun battle with Aaron Burr, who founded Bank of Manhattan with Kuhn Loeb financing.  Hamilton exemplified the contempt which the Eight Families hold towards common people, once stating, "All communities divide themselves into the few and the many.  The first are the rich and the well born, the others the mass of the people…The people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge and determine right.  Give therefore to the first class a distinct, permanent share of government.  They will check the unsteadiness of the second." Hamilton was only the first in a series of Eight Families cronies to hold the key position of Treasury Secretary.  In recent times Kennedy Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon came from Dillon Read (now part of UBS Warburg). Nixon Treasury Secretaries David Kennedy and William Simon came from Continental Illinois Bank (now part of Bank of America) and Salomon Brothers (now part of Citigroup), respectively. Carter Treasury Secretary Michael Blumenthal came from Goldman Sachs, Reagan Treasury Secretary Donald Regan came from Merrill Lynch (now part of Bank of America), Bush Sr. Treasury Secretary Nicholas Brady came from Dillon Read (UBS Warburg) and both Clinton Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin and Bush Jr. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson came from Goldman Sachs. Obama Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner worked at Kissinger Associates and the New York Fed. Thomas Jefferson argued that the United States needed a publicly-owned central bank so that European monarchs and aristocrats could not use the printing of money to control the affairs of the new nation.  Jefferson extolled, "A country which expects to remain ignorant and free…expects that which has never been and that which will never be.  There is scarcely a King in a hundred who would not, if he could, follow the example of Pharaoh – get first all the people's money, then all their lands and then make them and their children servants forever…banking establishments are more dangerous than standing armies.  Already they have raised up a money aristocracy." Jefferson watched as the Euro-banking conspiracy to control the United States unfolded, weighing in, "Single acts of tyranny may be ascribed to the accidental opinion of the day, but a series of oppressions begun at a distinguished period, unalterable through every change of ministers, too plainly prove a deliberate, systematic plan of reducing us to slavery". But the Rothschild-sponsored Hamilton's arguments for a private US central bank carried the day.  In 1791 the Bank of the United States (BUS) was founded, with the Rothschilds as main owners.  The bank's charter was to run out in 1811.  Public opinion ran in favor of revoking the charter and replacing it with a Jeffersonian public central bank.  The debate was postponed as the nation was plunged by the Euro-bankers into the War of 1812.  Amidst a climate of fear and economic hardship, Hamilton's bank got its charter renewed in 1816. Old Hickory, Honest Abe & Camelot In 1828 Andrew Jackson took a run at the US Presidency.  Throughout his campaign he railed against the international bankers who controlled the BUS.  Jackson ranted, "You are a den of vipers.  I intend to expose you and by Eternal God I will rout you out.  If the people understood the rank injustices of our money and banking system there would be a revolution before morning." Jackson won the election and revoked the bank's charter stating, "The Act seems to be predicated on an erroneous idea that the present shareholders have a prescriptive right to not only the favor, but the bounty of the government...for their benefit does this Act exclude the whole American people from competition in the purchase of this monopoly.  Present stockholders and those inheriting their rights as successors be established a privileged order, clothed both with great political power and enjoying immense pecuniary advantages from their connection with government.  Should its influence be concentrated under the operation of such an Act as this, in the hands of a self-elected directory whose interests are identified with those of the foreign stockholders, will there not be cause to tremble for the independence of our country in war...controlling our currency, receiving our public monies and holding thousands of our citizens independence, it would be more formidable and dangerous than the naval and military power of the enemy.  It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government for selfish purposes...to make the rich richer and more powerful.  Many of our rich men have not been content with equal protection and equal benefits, but have besought us to make them richer by acts of Congress.  I have done my duty to this country." Populism prevailed and Jackson was re-elected. In 1835 he was the target of an assassination attempt.  The gunman was Richard Lawrence, who confessed that he was, "in touch with the powers in Europe". Still, in 1836 Jackson refused to renew the BUS charter.  Under his watch the US national debt went to zero for the first and last time in our nation's history.  This angered the international bankers, whose primary income is derived from interest payments on debt.  BUS President Nicholas Biddle cut off funding to the US government in 1842, plunging the US into a depression.  Biddle was an agent for the Paris-based Jacob Rothschild. The Mexican War was simultaneously sprung on Jackson. A few years later the Civil War was unleashed, with London bankers backing the Union and French bankers backing the South. The Lehman family made a fortune smuggling arms to the south and cotton to the north.  By 1861 the US was $100 million in debt.  New President Abraham Lincoln snubbed the Euro-bankers again, issuing Lincoln Greenbacks to pay Union Army bills. The Rothschild-controlled Times of London wrote, "If that mischievous policy, which had its origins in the North American Republic, should become indurated down to a fixture, then that Government will furnish its own money without cost. It will pay off its debts and be without debt. It will have all the money necessary to carry on its commerce. It will become prosperous beyond precedent in the history of the civilized governments of the world. The brains and the wealth of all countries will go to North America. That government must be destroyed, or it will destroy every monarchy on the globe." The Euro-banker-written Hazard Circular was exposed and circulated throughout the country by angry populists.  It stated, "The great debt that capitalists will see is made out of the war and must be used to control the valve of money.  To accomplish this government bonds must be used as a banking basis.  We are now awaiting Secretary of Treasury Salmon Chase to make that recommendation.  It will not allow Greenbacks to circulate as money as we cannot control that.  We control bonds and through them banking issues". The 1863 National Banking Act reinstated a private US central bank and Chase's war bonds were issued.  Lincoln was re-elected the next year, vowing to repeal the act after he took his January 1865 oaths of office.  Before he could act, he was assassinated at the Ford Theatre by John Wilkes Booth.  Booth had major connections to the international bankers.  His granddaughter wrote This One Mad Act, which details Booth's contact with "mysterious Europeans" just before the Lincoln assassination. Following the Lincoln hit, Booth was whisked away by members of a secret society known as Knights of the Golden Circle (KGC).  KGC had close ties to the French Society of Seasons, which produced Karl Marx.  KGC had fomented much of the tension that caused the Civil War and President Lincoln had specifically targeted the group.  Booth was a KGC member and was connected through Confederate Secretary of State Judah Benjamin to the House of Rothschild.  Benjamin fled to England after the Civil War. Nearly a century after Lincoln was assassinated for issuing Greenbacks, President John F. Kennedy found himself in the Eight Families' crosshairs.  Kennedy had announced a crackdown on off-shore tax havens and proposed increases in tax rates on large oil and mining companies.  He supported eliminating tax loopholes which benefit the super-rich.  His economic policies were publicly attacked by Fortune magazine, the Wall Street Journal and both David and Nelson Rockefeller.  Even Kennedy's own Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon, who came from the UBS Warburg-controlled Dillon Read investment bank, voiced opposition to the JFK proposals. Kennedy's fate was sealed in June 1963 when he authorized the issuance of more than $4 billion in United States Notes by his Treasury Department in an attempt to circumvent the high interest rate usury of the private Federal Reserve international banker crowd.  The wife of Lee Harvey Oswald, who was conveniently gunned down by Jack Ruby before Ruby himself was shot, told author A. J. Weberman in 1994, "The answer to the Kennedy assassination is with the Federal Reserve Bank.  Don't underestimate that.  It's wrong to blame it on Angleton and the CIA per se only.  This is only one finger on the same hand.  The people who supply the money are above the CIA". Fueled by incoming President Lyndon Johnson's immediate escalation of the Vietnam War, the US sank further into debt. Its citizens were terrorized into silence. If they could kill the President they could kill anyone. The House of Rothschild The Dutch House of Orange founded the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609 as the world's first central bank.  Prince William of Orange married into the English House of Windsor, taking King James II's daughter Mary as his bride.  The Orange Order Brotherhood, which recently fomented Northern Ireland Protestant violence, put William III on the English throne where he ruled both Holland and Britain.  In 1694 William III teamed up with the UK aristocracy to launch the private Bank of England. The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street- as the Bank of England is known- is surrounded by thirty foot walls. Three floors beneath it the third largest stock of gold bullion in the world is stored. The Rothschilds and their inbred Eight Families partners gradually came to control the Bank of England. The daily London gold "fixing" occurred at the N. M. Rothschild Bank until 2004.  As Bank of England Deputy Governor George Blunden put it, "Fear is what makes the bank's powers so acceptable.  The bank is able to exert its influence when people are dependent on us and fear losing their privileges or when they are frightened." Mayer Amschel Rothschild sold the British government German Hessian mercenaries to fight against American Revolutionaries, diverting the proceeds to his brother Nathan in London, where N.M. (Nathan and Mayer) Rothschild & Sons was established.  Mayer was a serious student of Cabala and launched his fortune on money embezzled from William IX- royal administrator of the Hesse-Kassel region and a prominent Freemason. Rothschild-controlled Barings bankrolled the Chinese opium and African slave trades. It financed the Louisiana Purchase.  When several states defaulted on its loans, Barings bribed Daniel Webster to make speeches stressing the virtues of loan repayment.  The states held their ground, so the House of Rothschild cut off the money spigot in 1842, plunging the US into a deep depression.  It was often said that the wealth of the Rothschilds depended on the bankruptcy of nations.  Mayer Amschel Rothschild once said, "I care not who controls a nation's political affairs, so long as I control her currency". War didn't hurt the family fortune either.  The House of Rothschild financed the Prussian War, the Crimean War and the British attempt to seize the Suez Canal from the French.  Nathan Rothschild made a huge financial bet on Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, while also funding the Duke of Wellington's peninsular campaign against Napoleon. Both the Mexican War and the Civil War were goldmines for the family. One Rothschild family biography mentions a London meeting where an "International Banking Syndicate" decided to pit the American North against the South as part of a "divide and conquer" strategy.  German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck once stated, "The division of the United States into federations of equal force was decided long before the Civil War.  These bankers were afraid that the United States…would upset their financial domination over the world.  The voice of the Rothschilds prevailed." Rothschild biographer Derek Wilson says the family was the official European banker to the US government and strong supporters of the Bank of the United States. Family biographer Niall Ferguson notes a "substantial and unexplained gap" in private Rothschild correspondence between 1854-1860. He says all copies of outgoing letters written by the London Rothschilds during this Civil War period "were destroyed at the orders of successive partners". French and British troops had, at the height of the Civil War, encircled the US.  The British sent 11,000 troops to Crown-controlled Canada, which gave safe harbor to Confederate agents.  France's Napoleon III installed Austrian Hapsburg family member Archduke Maximilian as his puppet emperor in Mexico, where French troops massed on the Texas border.  Only an 11th-hour deployment of two Russian warship fleets by US ally Czar Alexander II in 1863 saved the United States from re-colonization. That same year the Chicago Tribune blasted, "Belmont (August Belmont was a US Rothschild agent and had a Triple Crown horse race named in his honor) and the Rothschilds…who have been buying up Confederate war bonds." Salmon Rothschild said of a deceased President Lincoln, "He rejects all forms of compromise.  He has the appearance of a peasant and can only tell barroom stories."  Baron Jacob Rothschild was equally flattering towards the US citizenry. He once commented to US Minister to Belgium Henry Sanford on the over half a million Americans who died during the Civil War, "When your patient is desperately sick, you try desperate measures, even to bloodletting."  Salmon and Jacob were merely carrying forth a family tradition.  A few generations earlier Mayer Amschel Rothschild bragged of his investment strategy, "When the streets of Paris are running in blood, I buy". Mayer Rothschild's sons were known as the Frankfurt Five.  The eldest – Amschel – ran the family's Frankfurt bank with his father, while Nathan ran London operations.  Youngest son Jacob set up shop in Paris, while Salomon ran the Vienna branch and Karl was off to Naples.  Author Frederick Morton estimates that by 1850 the Rothschilds were worth over $10 billion. [21] Some researchers believe that their fortune today exceeds $100 trillion. The Warburgs, Kuhn Loebs, Goldman Sachs, Schiffs and Rothschilds have intermarried into one big happy banking family.  The Warburg family- which controls Deutsche Bank and BNP- tied up with the Rothschilds in 1814 in Hamburg, while Kuhn Loeb powerhouse Jacob Schiff shared quarters with Rothschilds in 1785.  Schiff immigrated to America in 1865. He joined forces with Abraham Kuhn and married Solomon Loeb's daughter.  Loeb and Kuhn married each others sisters and the Kuhn Loeb dynasty was consummated.  Felix Warburg married Jacob Schiff's daughter. Two Goldman daughters married two sons of the Sachs family, creating Goldman Sachs.  In 1806 Nathan Rothschild married the oldest daughter of Levi Barent Cohen, a leading financier in London. Thus, Merrill Lynch super-bull Abby Joseph Cohen and Clinton Secretary of Defense William Cohen are likely descended from Rothschilds. Today the Rothschild's control a far-flung financial empire, which includes majority stakes in most world central banks.  The Edmond de Rothschild clan owns the Banque Privee SA in Lugano, Switzerland and the Rothschild Bank AG of Zurich.  The family of Jacob Lord Rothschild owns the powerful Rothschild Italia in Milan. They are founding members of the exclusive $10 trillion Club of the Isles – which controls corporate giants Royal Dutch Shell, Imperial Chemical Industries, Lloyds of London, Unilever, Barclays, Lonrho, Rio Tinto Zinc, BHP Billiton and Anglo American DeBeers. It dominates the world supply of petroleum, gold, diamonds, and many other vital raw materials. The Club of the Isles provides capital for George Soros' Quantum Fund NV – which made a killing in 1998-99 destroying the currencies of Thailand, Indonesia and Russia.  Soros was a major shareholder at George W. Bush's Harken Energy. Quantum NV operates from the Dutch island of Curacao, in the shadow of recently shuttered Royal Dutch/Shell and Exxon Mobil refineries.  Curacao was recently cited by an OECD Task Force on Money Laundering as a major drug money laundering nation.  The Club of Isles is led by the Rothschilds and includes Queen Elizabeth II and other wealthy European aristocrats and Black Nobility.  Fugitive Swiss financier and Mossad cutout Marc Rich, whose business interests were recently taken over by the Russian mafia Alfa Group, is also part of the Soros network. Ties to drug money are nothing new to the Rothschilds.  N. M. Rothschild & Sons was at the epicenter of the Bank of Credit & Commerce International (BCCI) scandal, but escaped the limelight when a warehouse full of documents conveniently burned to the ground around the time Rothschild-controlled Bank of England shut BCCI down. Recent Rothschild endeavors include the backing of Russian oligarch Mikhail Khodorkovsky, control over Blackstone Group (see "…The 911 Short Selling Financial Scam": globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=24687), and the takeover of giant Swiss oil trader Glencore. Perhaps the largest repository for Rothschild wealth today is Rothschilds Continuation Holdings AG – a secretive Swiss-based bank holding company.  By the late 1990s scions of the Rothschild global empire were Barons Guy and Elie de Rothschild in France and Lord Jacob and Sir Evelyn Rothschild in Britain. Evelyn was chairman of the Economist and a director at DeBeers and IBM UK. Jacob backed Arnold Schwarzenegger's California gubernatorial campaign. He took control of Khodorkovsky's YUKOS oil shares just before the Russian government arrested him. In 2010 Jacob joined Rupert Murdoch in a shale oil extraction partnership in Israel through Genie Energy – a subsidiary of IDT Corporation. Within months, Sarah Palin had hired former IDT executive Michael Glassner as her chief of staff. [27] Is Palin the Rothschild choice in 2012? The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part III: The Roundtable & The Illuminati According to former British intelligence agent John Coleman's book, The Committee of 300, the Rothschilds exert political control through the secretive Business Roundtable, which they created in 1909 with the help of Lord Alfred Milner and South African industrialist Cecil Rhodes. The Rhodes Scholarship is granted by Oxford University, while oil industry propagandist Cambridge Energy Research Associates operates out of the Rhodes-supported Cambridge University. Rhodes founded De Beers and Standard Chartered Bank.  According to Gary Allen's expose, The Rockefeller Files, Milner financed the Russian Bolsheviks on Rothschild's behalf, with help from Jacob Schiff and Max Warburg. In 1917 British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour penned a letter to Zionist Second Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild in which he expressed support for a Jewish homeland on Palestinian-controlled lands in the Middle East. [1] The Balfour Declaration justified the brutal seizure of Palestinian lands for the post-WWII establishment of Israel.  Israel would serve, not as some high-minded "Jewish homeland", but as lynchpin in Rothschild/Eight Families control over the world's oil supply.  Baron Edmond de Rothschild built the first oil pipeline from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean to bring BP Iranian oil to Israel.  He founded Israeli General Bank and Paz Oil. He is considered by many the father of modern Israel. [2] Roundtable inner Circle of Initiates included Lord Milner, Cecil Rhodes, Arthur Balfour, Albert Grey and Lord Nathan Rothschild.  The Roundtable takes its name from the legendary knight of King Arthur, whose tale of the Holy Grail is paramount to the Illuminati notion of Sangreal or holy blood. John Coleman writes in The Committee of 300, "Round Tablers armed with immense wealth from gold, diamond and drug monopolies fanned out throughout the world to take control of fiscal and monetary policies and political leadership in all countries where they operated." While Cecil Rhodes and the Oppenheimers went to South Africa, the Kuhn Loebs were off to re-colonize America.  Rudyard Kipling was sent to India. The Schiffs and Warburgs manhandled Russia. The Rothschilds, Lazards and Israel Moses Seifs pushed into the Middle East.  In Princeton, New Jersey the Round Table founded the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) as partner to its All Souls College at Oxford.  IAS was funded by the Rockefeller's General Education Board. IAS members Robert Oppenheimer, Neils Bohr and Albert Einstein created the atomic bomb. In 1919 Rothschild's Business Roundtable spawned the Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA) in London.  The RIIA soon sponsored sister organizations around the globe, including the US Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), the Asian Institute of Pacific Relations, the Canadian Institute of International Affairs, the Brussels-based Institute des Relations Internationales, the Danish Foreign Policy Society, the Indian Council of World Affairs and the Australian Institute of International Affairs. Other affiliates popped up in France, Turkey, Italy, Yugoslavia and Greece. The RIIA is a registered charity of the Queen and, according to its annual reports, is funded largely by the Four Horsemen.  Former British Foreign Secretary and Kissinger Associates co-founder Lord Carrington was President of both the RIIA and the Bilderbergers.  The inner circle at RIIA is dominated by Knights of St. John Jerusalem, Knights of Malta, Knights Templar and 33rd Degree Scottish Rite Freemasons.  The Knights of St. John were founded in 1070 and answer directly to the British House of Windsor.  Their leading bloodline is the Villiers dynasty, which the Hong Kong Matheson family married into. The Lytton family also married into the Villiers gang. Colonel Edward Bulwer-Lytton led the English Rosicrucian secret society, which Shakespeare opaquely referred to as Rosencranz, while the Freemasons took the role of Guildenstern.  Lytton was spiritual father of both the RIIA and Nazi fascism.  In 1871 he penned a novel titled, Vril: The Power of the Coming Race.  Seventy years later the Vril Society received ample mention in Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf.  Lytton's son became Viceroy to India in 1876 just before opium production spiked in that country.  Lytton's good friend Rudyard Kipling worked under Lord Beaverbrook as Propaganda Minister, alongside Sir Charles Hambro of the Hambros banking dynasty. James Bruce, ancestor to Scottish Rite Freemason founder Sir Robert the Bruce, was the 8th Earl of Elgin. He supervised the Caribbean slave trade as Jamaican Governor General from 1842-1846.  He was Britain's Ambassador to China during the Second Opium War.  His brother Frederick was Colonial Secretary of Hong Kong during both Opium Wars.  Both were prominent Freemasons.  British Lord Palmerston, who ran the Opium Wars, was a blood relative of the Bruce monarchy, as was his Foreign Secretary John Russell, grandfather of Bertrand Russell. Children of the Roundtable elite are members of a Dionysian cult known as Children of the Sun.  Initiates include Aldous Huxley, T. S. Eliot, D. H. Lawrence and H. G. Wells.  Wells headed British intelligence during WWI. His books speak of a "one-world brain" and "a police of the mind".  William Butler Yeats, another Sun member, was a pal of Aleister Crowley.  The two formed an Isis Cult based on a Madam Blavatsky manuscript, which called on the British aristocracy to organize itself into an Isis Aryan priesthood. Most prominent writers of English literature came from the ranks of the Roundtable. All promoted Empire expansion, however subtly.  Blavatsky's Theosophical Society and Bulwer-Lytton's Rosicrucians joined forces to form the Thule Society out of which the Nazis emerged. Aleister Crowley formed the British parallel to the Thule Society, the Isis-Urania Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.  He tutored LSD guru Aldus Huxley, who arrived in the US in 1952, the same year the CIA launched its MK-ULTRA mind control program with help from the Warburg-owned Swiss Sandoz Laboratories and Rockefeller cousin Allen Dulles- OSS Station Chief in Berne.  Dulles received information from the Muslim Brotherhood House of Saudi regarding the creation of mind-controlled Assassins.  Dulles' assistant was James Warburg. The Atlantic Union (AU) was an RIIA affiliate founded by Cecil Rhodes- who dreamed of returning the US to the British Crown.  In 1939 AU set up its first offices in America in space donated by Nelson Rockefeller at 10 E 40th St in New York City.  Every year from 1949-1976 an AU resolution was floored in Congress calling for a repeal of the Declaration of Independence and a "new world order". Another RIIA affiliate was United World Federalists (UWF)- founded by Norman Cousins and Dulles assistant James P. Warburg.  UWF's motto was "One world or none".  Its first president Cord Meyer stepped down to take a key position in Allen Dulles' CIA.  Meyer articulated UWF's goal, "Once having joined the One-World Federated Government, no nation could secede or revolt…with the atom bomb in its possession the Federal Government would blow that nation off the face of the earth." In 1950 James Warburg, whose elders Max and Paul sat on the board of Nazi business combine IG Farben, testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "We shall have world government whether or not you like it- by conquest or consent."  The AU and UAF are close to the CFR and the Trilateral Commission (TC)- founded by David Rockefeller and Zbigniew Brzezinski in 1974. The TC published The Triangle Papers which extended the "special relationship between the US and Western Europe" to include Japan, which was fast becoming creditor to the rest of the world.  Former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker was TC Chairman.  TC/CFR insider Harvard Professor  Samuel Huntington, who most recently has argued for a "Clash of Civilizations" between the West and the Muslim world, wrote in the TC publication Crisis in Democracy, "…a government which lacks authority will have little ability short of cataclysmic crisis to impose on its people the sacrifices which may be necessary." The Illuminati The Illuminati serves as ruling council to all secret societies.  Its roots go back to the Guardians of Light in Atlantis, the Brotherhood of the Snake in Sumeria, the Afghan Roshaniya, the Egyptian Mystery Schools and the Genoese families who bankrolled the Roman Empire.  British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who "handled" mafia-founder and 33rd Degree Mason Guiseppe Mazzini, alluded to the Illuminati in a speech before the House of Commons in 1856 warning, "There is in Italy a power which we seldom mention. I mean the secret societies.  Europe…is covered with a network of secret societies just as the surfaces of the earth are covered with a network of railroads." The Illuminati is to these secret societies what the Bank of International Settlements is to the Eight Families central bankers.  And their constituencies are exactly the same. The forerunners of the Freemasons -the Knights Templar- founded the concept of banking and created a bond market as a means to control European nobles through war debts.  By the 13th century the Templars had used their looted Crusades gold to buy 9,000 castles throughout Europe and ran an empire stretching from Copenhagen to Damascus.  They founded modern banking techniques and legitimized usury via interest payments.  Templars' bank branches popped up everywhere, backed by their ill-gotten gold.  They charged up to 60% interest on loans, launched the concept of trust accounts and introduced a credit card system for Holy Land pilgrims.  They acted as tax collectors, though themselves exempted by Roman authorities, and built the great cathedrals of Europe, having also found instructions regarding secret building techniques alongside the gold they pilfered beneath Solomon's Temple.  The stained glass used in the cathedrals resulted from a secret Gothic technique known by few.  One who had perfected this art was Omar Khayvam, a good friend of Assassin founder Hasan bin Sabah. The Templars controlled a huge fleet of ships and their own naval fleet based at the French Atlantic Port of La Rochelle.  They were especially cozy with the royals of England.  They purchased the island of Cyprus from Richard the Lion Heart, but were later overrun by the Turks.  On Friday October 13, 1307 King Philip IV of France joined forces with Pope Clement V and began rounding up Templars on charges ranging from necromancy to the use of black magic.  Friday the 13th would from that day forward carry negative connotations. "Sion" is believed to be a transliteration of Zion, itself a transliteration for the ancient Hebrew name Jerusalem.  The Priory of Sion came into public view in July 1956.  A 1981 notice in the French press listed 121 dignitaries as Priory members.  All were bankers, royalty or members of the international political jet set.  Pierre Plantard was listed as Grand Master.  Plantard is a direct descendent, through King Dagobert II, of the Merovingan Kings.  Plantard, who owns property in the Rennes-le-Chateau area of southern France where the Priory of Sion is based, has stated that the order has in its possession lost treasure recovered from beneath Solomon's Temple and that it will be returned to Israel when the time is right.  He also stated that in the near future monarchy would be restored to France and other nations. The Templars claim to possess secret knowledge that Jesus Christ married Mary Magdalene, fathered children to launch the Merovingan bloodline and was the son of Joseph of Arimathea. Joseph was the son of King Solomon.  Solomon's Temple is the model for Masonic Temples, which occur without fail in every town of any size in America.  It was a place of ill repute where fornicating, drunkenness and human sacrifice were the norm.  Accorder to British researcher David Icke, it's location on Jerusalem's Mount Moriah may have also been an Anunnaki flight control center. The Annunaki are the reptilian/aliens revealed by the Sumerian clay tablets- the oldest written accounts of humankind known. The Crusader Knights Templar looted their huge store of gold and numerous sacred artifacts from beneath the Temple.  King Solomon was the son of King David- who during his 1015 BC reign massacred thousands of people. Icke calls King David "a butcher" and asserts that the king wrote a good chunk of the Bible.  His son Solomon killed his own brother to become King.  He advised Egyptian Pharaoh Shiskak I, marrying his daughter.  Solomon studied at Akhenaton's Egyptian Mystery Schools, where mind control was rampant.  The Grand Lodge of Cairo spawned a network of secret societies including Assassins, Cabalists, Freemasons and the Afghan Roshaniya. Those who pass through to the highest levels become Illuminati. Icke claims the Canaanite Brotherhood was headed by the god/king Melchizedek, who may have been an Annunaki.  The King focused on a Hebrew understanding of the Ancient Mysteries. The Order of Melchizedek became the secret society associated with the Cabala.  King Solomon developed his vast wisdom studying the Sumerian Tables of Destiny which Abraham had possessed.  Abraham may have also been of Anunnaki origin. Both he and Melchizedek had been tutored by the Sumerian Brotherhood of the Snake, whose name may have something to do with the Biblical creation story, where Adam and Eve are tempted from a bountiful garden of Eden (a hunting and gathering existence?) into a world of "sin and servitude" by a snake.  When the Bible says that the first couple ate the forbidden fruit, could it mean that Eve was impregnated by the snake – an Annunaki serpent (the Nephilim of the Book of Genesis) – thus damning all Adamus to a life of toil under serpent king bloodline control? The basis of the Sumerian Tables of Destiny which Abraham possessed became known as Ha Qabala, Hebrew for "light and knowledge".  Those who understood these cryptic secrets, said to be encoded throughout the Old Testament, are referred to deferentially as Ram.  The phrase is used in Celtic, Buddhist and Hindu spiritual circles as well.  The Knights Templar brought Cabbalistic knowledge to Europe when they returned from their Middle East Crusade adventures. [16] The Knights created the Prieure de Sion on Mt. Zion near Jerusalem in the 11th century to guard such holy relics as the Shroud of Turin, the Ark of the Covenant and the Hapsburg family's Spear of Destiny- which was used to kill Jesus Christ.  The Priory's more important purpose was to guard Templar gold and to preserve the alleged bloodline of Jesus – the royal Sangreal – which they believe is carried forth by the French Bourbon Merovingan family and the related Hapsburg monarchs of Spain and Austria. [17]  The French Lorraine dynasty, which descended from the Merovingans, married into the House of Hapsburg to acquire the throne of Austria. The Hapsburgs ran the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, through King Charles V and others.  The family traces its roots back to a Swiss estate known as Habichtburg, which was built in 1020.  The Hapsburgs are an integral part of the Priory of Sion. Many researchers believe that Spain's Hapsburg King Philip will be crowned Sangreal World King in Jerusalem.  The Hapsburgs are related to the Rothschilds through Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa's second son Archibald II. The Rothschilds- leaders in Cabala, Freemasonry and the Knights Templar- sit at the apex of the both the Illuminati and the Eight Families banking cartel.  The family accumulated its vast wealth issuing war bonds to Black Nobility for centuries, including the British Windsors, the French Bourbons, the German von Thurn und Taxis, the Italian Savoys and the Austrian and Spanish Hapsburgs. The Eight Families have also intermarried with these royals. Author David Icke believes the Rothschilds represent the head of the Anunnaki Serpent Kings, stating, "They (Rothschilds) had the crown heads of Europe in debt to them and this included the Black Nobility dynasty, the Hapsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire for 600 years.  The Rothschilds also control the Bank of England.  If there was a war, the Rothschilds were behind the scenes, creating conflict and funding both sides." The Rothschilds and the Warburgs are main stockholders of the German Bundesbank.  Rothschilds control Japan's biggest banking house Nomura Securities via a tie-up between Edmund Rothschild and Tsunao Okumura.  The Rothschilds are the richest and most powerful family in the world.  They are also inbred.  According to several family biographers, over half of the last generation of Rothschild progeny married within the family, presumably to preserve their Sangreal. The 1782 Great Seal of the United States is loaded with Illuminati symbolism.  So is the reverse side of the US $1 Federal Reserve Note, which was designed by Freemasons.  The pyramid on the left side represents those in Egypt- possibly space beacon/energy source to the Anunnaki- whose Pharaohs oversaw the building of the pyramids using slave labor. The pyramid is an important symbol for the Illuminati bankers. They employ Triads, Trilaterals and Trinities to create a society ruled by an elite Sangreal few presiding over the masses- as represented by a pyramid.  The Brotherhood of the Snake worshiped a Trinity of Isis, Osirus and Horus- who may have been Anunnaki offspring.  The Brotherhood spread the concept of Trinity to Christian (Father, Son and Holy Spirit), Hindu (Brahma, Shiva and Krishna) and Buddhist (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) faiths. [20] The reptilian eye atop the pyramid depicted on the $1 bill is the all-seeing eye of the Afghan Roshaniya, known alternately as The Order and Order of the Quest- names adopted by Skull & Bones, Germanorden and the JASON Society. [21]  Take a magnifying glass and look at the eye's pupil. There is an image of an alien inside the pupil. I'm not kidding. Novus Ordo Seclorum appears beneath the pyramid, while Annuit Coeptis appears above the all-seeing eye.  Annuit Coeptis means "may he smile upon our endeavors (Great Work of Ages)".  Above the eagle on the right side of the note are the words E Pluribus Unum, Latin for "out of many one".  The eagle clutches 13 arrows and 13 olive branches, while 13 stars appear above the eagle's head.  America was founded with 13 colonies.  Templar pirate Jaques deMolay was executed on Friday the 13th. The numbers 3, 9, 13 and 33 are significant to the secret societies.  33rd-degree Freemasons are said to become Illuminati. According to the late researcher William Cooper, the Bilderberger Group has a powerful Policy Committee of 13 members.  It is one of 3 committees of 13 which answered (until his recent death) to Prince Bernhard- member of the Hapsburg family and leader of the Black Nobility.  The Bilderberg Policy Committee answers to a Rothschild Round Table of 9.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-20" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-20" data-testid= "conversation-turn-42" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part IV: A Financial Parasite United World Federalists founder James Warburg's father was Paul Warburg, who financed Hitler with help from Brown Brothers Harriman partner Prescott Bush. Colonel Ely Garrison was a close friend of both President Teddy Roosevelt and President Woodrow Wilson.  Garrison wrote in Roosevelt, Wilson and the Federal Reserve, "Paul Warburg was the man who got the Federal Reserve Act together after the Aldrich Plan aroused such nationwide resentment and opposition.  The mastermind of both plans was Baron Alfred Rothschild of London." The Aldrich Plan was hatched at a secret 1910 meeting at JP Morgan's private resort on Jekyl Island, SC between Rockefeller lieutenant Nelson Aldrich and Paul Warburg of the German Warburg banking dynasty.  Aldrich, a New York congressman, later married into the Rockefeller family.  His son Winthrop Aldrich chaired Chase Manhattan Bank.  While the bankers met, Colonel Edward House, another Rockefeller stooge and close confidant of President Woodrow Wilson, was busy convincing Wilson of the importance of a private central bank and the introduction of a national income tax. A member of House's staff was British MI6 Permindex insider General Julius Klein. Wilson didn't need much convincing, since he was beholden to copper magnate Cleveland Dodge, whose namesake Phelps Dodge became one of the biggest mining companies in the world.  Dodge bankrolled Wilson's political career. Wilson even wrote his inaugural speech on Dodge's yacht. Wilson was a classmate of both Dodge and Cyrus McCormick at Princeton.  Both were directors at Rockefeller's National City Bank (now Citigroup).  Wilson's main focus was on overcoming public distrust of the bankers, which New York City Mayor John Hylan echoed in 1922 when he argued, "The real menace to our republic is the invisible government which, like a giant octopus, sprawls its slimy length over our city, state and nation.  At the head is a small group of banking houses, generally referred to as the international bankers". But the Eight Families prevailed.  In 1913 the Federal Reserve Bank was born, with Paul Warburg its first Governor.  Four years later the US entered World War I, after a secret society known as the Black Hand assassinated Archduke Ferdinand and his Hapsburg wife.  The Archduke's friend Count Czerin later said, "A year before the war he informed me that the Masons had resolved upon his death." That same year, Bolsheviks overthrew the Hohehzollern monarchy in Russia with help from Max Warburg and Jacob Schiff, while the Balfour Declaration leading to the creation of Israel was penned to Zionist Second Lord Rothschild. In the 1920's Baron Edmund de Rothschild founded the Palestine Economics Commission, while Kuhn Loeb's Manhattan offices helped Rothschild form a network to smuggle weapons to Zionist death squads bent on seizing Palestinian lands.  General Julius Klein oversaw the operation and headed the US Army Counterintelligence Corps, which later produced Henry Kissinger.  Klein diverted Marshall Plan aid to Europe to Zionist terror cells in Palestine after WWII, channeling the funds through the Sonneborn Institute, which was controlled by Baltimore chemical magnate Rudolph Sonneborn.  His wife Dorothy Schiff is related to the Warburgs. The Kuhn Loebs came to Manhattan with the Warburgs. At the same time the Bronfmans came to Canada as part of the Moses Montefiore Jewish Colonization Committee.  The Montefiores have carried out the dirty work of Genoese nobility since the 13th Century.  The di Spadaforas served that function for the Italian House of Savoy, which was bankrolled by the Israel Moses Seif family for which Israel is named.  Lord Harold Sebag Montefiore is current head of the Jerusalem Foundation, the Zionist wing of the Knights of St. John's Jerusalem.  The Bronfmans (the name means "liquorman" in Yiddish) tied up with Arnold Rothstein, a product of the Rothschild's dry goods empire, to found organized crime in New York City.  Rothstein was succeeded by Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, Robert Vesco and Santos Trafficante.  The Bronfmans are intermarried with the Rothschilds, Loebs and Lamberts. The year 1917 also saw the 16th Amendment added to the US Constitution, levying a national income tax, though it was ratified by only two of the required 36 states.  The IRS is a private corporation registered in Delaware. [8]  Four years earlier the Rockefeller Foundation was launched, to shield family wealth from the new income tax provisions, while steering public opinion through social engineering.  One of its tentacles was the General Education Board. In Occasional Letter #1 the Board states, "In our dreams we have limitless resources and the people yield themselves with perfect docility to our molding hands. The present education conventions fade from their minds and, unhampered by tradition, we will work our own good will upon a grateful and responsive rural folk.  We shall try not to make these people or any of their children into philosophers or men of learning or men of science…of whom we have ample supply." Though most Americans think of the Federal Reserve as a government institution, it is privately held by the Eight Families.  The Secret Service is employed, not by the Executive Branch, but by the Federal Reserve. [10] An exchange between Sen. Edward Kennedy (D-MA) and Fed Chairman Paul Volcker at Senate hearings in 1982 is instructive.  Kennedy must have thought of his older brother John when he told Volcker that if he were before the committee as a member of US Treasury things would be much different.  Volcker, puffing on a cigar, responded cavalierly, "That's probably true. But I believe it was intentionally designed this way". [11]  Rep. Lee Hamilton (D-IN) put it to Volcker that, "People realize that what that board of yours does has a very profound impact on their pocketbooks, and yet it is a group of people basically inaccessible to them and unaccountable to them." President Wilson spoke of, "a power so organized, so complete, so pervasive, that they had better not speak above their breaths when they speak in condemnation of it." Rep. Charles Lindberg (D-NY) was more blunt, railing against Wilson's Federal Reserve Act, which had cleverly been dubbed the "People's Bill".  Lindberg declared that the Act would, "…establish the most gigantic trust on earth…When the president signs this act, the invisible government by the money power will be legitimized.  The law will create inflation whenever the trusts want inflation.  From now on, depressions will be scientifically created.  The invisible government by the money power, proven to exist by the Money Trust Investigation, will be legalized.  The whole central bank concept was engineered by the very group it was supposed to strip of power". The Fed is made up of most every bank in the US, but the New York Federal Reserve Bank controls the Fed by virtue of its enormous capital resources.  The true center of power within the Fed is the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), on which only the NY Fed President holds a permanent voting seat.  The FOMC issues directives on monetary policy which are implemented from the 8th Floor of the NY Fed, a fortress modeled after the Bank of England. In the fifth sub-basement of the 14-story stone hulk lie 10,300 tons of mostly non-US gold, 1/3 of the world's gold reserves and by far the largest gold stock in the world. The world of money is increasingly computerized.  With the introduction by the Eight Families of complicated financial instruments like derivatives, options, puts and futures; the volume of inter-bank transactions took a quantum leap.  To handle this the fed built a superhighway eerily known as CHIPS (Clearing Interbank Payment System), which is based in New York and modeled after Morgan's Belgium-based Euro-Clear – also known as The Beast. When the Fed was created five New York banks- Citibank, Chase, Chemical Bank, Manufacturers Hanover and Bankers Trust- held a 43% stake in the New York Fed.  By 1983 these same five banks owned 53% of the NY Fed.  By year 2000, the newly merged Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase and Deutsche Bank combines owned even bigger chunks, as did the European faction of the Eight Families. Collectively they own majority stock in every Fortune 500 corporation and do the bulk of stock and bond trading.  In 1955 the above five banks accounted for 15% of all stock trades.  By 1985 they were involved in 85% of all stock transactions. Still more powerful are the investment banks which bear the names of many of the Eight Families. In 1982, while Morgan bankers presided over negotiations between Britain and Argentina after the Falklands War, President Reagan pushed through SEC Rule 415, which helped consolidate securities underwriting in the hands of six large investment houses owned by the Eight Families: Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, Salomon Brothers, First Boston and Lehman Brothers.  These banks further consolidated their power via the merger mania of 1980s and 1990s. American Express swallowed up both Lehman Brothers-Kuhn Loeb – which had merged in 1977 – and Shearson Lehman-Rhoades.  The Israel Moses Seif's Banca de la Svizzera Italiana bought a 7% stake in Lehman Brothers. [16]  Salomon Brothers nabbed Philbro from the South African Oppenheimer family, then bought Smith Barney. All three then became part of Traveler's Group, headed by Sandy Weill of the David-Weill family, which controls Lazard Freres through senior partner Michel David-Weill.  Citibank then bought Travelers to form Citigroup. S.G. Warburg, of which Oppenheimer's Chartered Consolidated owns a 9% stake, joined the old money Banque Paribas- which merged into Merrill Lynch in 1984.  Union Bank of Switzerland acquired Paine Webber, while Morgan Stanley ate up Dean Witter and purchased Discover credit card operations from Sears. Kuhn Loeb-controlled First Boston merged with Credit Suisse, which had already absorbed White-Weld, to become CS First Boston- the major player in the dirty London Eurobond market.  Merrill Lynch – merged into Bank of America in 2008 – is the major player on the US side of this trade.  Swiss Banking Corporation merged with London's biggest investment house S.G. Warburg to create SBC Warburg, while Warburg became more intertwined with Merrill Lynch through their 1998 Mercury Assets tie up.  The Warburg's formed another venture with Union Bank of Switzerland, creating powerhouse UBS Warburg.  Deutsche Bank bought Banker's Trust and Alex Brown to briefly become the world's largest bank with $882 billion in assets.  With repeal of Glass-Steagal, the line between investment, commercial and private banking disappeared. This handful of investment banks exerts an enormous amount of control over the global economy.  Their activities include advising Third World debt negotiations, handling mergers and breakups, creating companies to fill a perceived economic void through the launching of initial public stock offerings (IPOs), underwriting all stocks, underwriting all corporate and government bond issuance, and pulling the bandwagon down the road of privatization and globalization of the world economy. A recent president of the World Bank was James Wolfensohn of Salomon Smith Barney.  Merrill Lynch had $435 billion in assets in 1994, before the merger frenzy had really even gotten under way.  The biggest commercial bank at the time, Citibank, could claim only $249 billion in assets. In 1991 Merrill Lynch handled 26.8% of all global bank mergers.  Morgan Stanley did 16.8%, Goldman Sachs 16.3%, Lehman Brothers 16.1% and Credit Suisse First Boston 14.5%.  Morgan Stanley did $60 billion in corporate mergers in 1989.  By 2007, reflecting the repeal of Glass-Steagel, the top ten NMA advisers in order were: Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase, Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, UBS Warburg, Credit Suisse, Deutsche Bank and Lazard. In the IPO stock underwriting field for 1991 the top four were Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley and CS First Boston.  In the arena of global privatization for years 1985-1995, Goldman Sachs led the way doing $13.3 billion worth of deals.  UBS Warburg did $8.2 billion, BNP Paribas $6.8 billion, CS First Boston $4.9 billion and Paribas-owner Merrill Lynch $4.4 billion. In 2006 BNP Paribas bought the notorious Banca Nacionale de Lavoro (BNL), which led the charge in arming Saddam Hussein. According to Global Finance, it is now the world's largest bank with nearly $3 trillion in assets. The leading US debt underwriters for the first nine months of 1995 bore the same familiar names.  Merrill Lynch underwrote $74.2 billion in the US debt markets, or 15.3% of the total.  Lehman Brothers handled $52.5 billion, Morgan Stanley $47.4 billion, Salomon Smith Barney $45.6 billion.  CS First Boston, Chase Manhattan and Goldman Sachs rounded out the top seven.  The top three municipal debt underwriters that year were Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch and UBS Paine Webber.  In the euro-market the top four underwriters in 1995 were UBS Warburg, Merrill Lynch, Deutsche Bank and Goldman Sachs. [18]  Deutsche Bank's Morgan Grenfell branch engineered the corporate takeover binge in Europe. The dominant players in the oil futures markets at both the New York Mercantile Exchange and the London Petroleum Exchange are Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, Goldman Sachs (through its J. Aron & Company subsidiary), Citigroup (through its Philbro unit) and Deutsche Bank (through its Banker's Trust acquisition).  In 2002 Enron Online was auctioned off by a bankruptcy court to UBS Warburg for $0.  UBS was to share monopoly Enron Online profits with Lehman Brothers after the first two years of the deal. [19] With Lehman's 2008 demise, its new owner Barclays will get their cut. Following the Lehman Brothers fiasco and the ensuing financial meltdown of 2008, the Four Horsemen of Banking got even bigger. For pennies on the dollar, JP Morgan Chase was handed Bear Stearns and Washington Mutual. Bank of America commandeered Merrill Lynch and Countrywide. And Wells Fargo seized control over the reeling #5 US bank Wachovia. Barclays got a sweetheart deal for the remains of Lehman Brothers. Former House Banking Committee Chairman Wright Patman (D-TX), declared of Federal Reserve Eight Families owners, "The United States today has in effect two governments.  We are the duly constituted government.  Then we have an independent, uncontrolled and uncoordinated government in the Federal Reserve System, operating the money powers which are reserved to Congress by the Constitution". Since the creation of the Federal Reserve, US debt (mostly owed to the Eight Families) has skyrocketed from $1 billion to nearly $14 trillion today.  This far surpasses the total of all Third World country debt combined, debt which is mostly owed to these same Eight Families, who own most all the world's central banks. As Sen. Barry Goldwater (R-AZ) pointed out, "International bankers make money by extending credit to governments.  The greater the debt of the political state, the larger the interest returned to lenders.  The national banks of Europe are (also) owned and controlled by private interests.  We recognize in a hazy sort of way that the Rothschilds and the Warburgs of Europe and the houses of JP Morgan, Kuhn Loeb & Co., Schiff, Lehman and Rockefeller possess and control vast wealth.  How they acquire this vast financial power and employ it is a mystery to most of us.  Source:  The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part IV: A Financial Parasite *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Sulfur: From Ancient Material to Modern Industry and Warfare From the biblical "fire and brimstone" to cutting-edge battery technology, sulfur has played a pivotal role in human civilization for millennia. This bright yellow element, essential for life itself and crucial to modern industry, deserves far more recognition than it typically receives. As the tenth most abundant element in the universe and the third most abundant mineral in the human body, sulfur touches nearly every aspect of our daily lives—from the proteins that build our bodies to the fertilizers that grow our food. Sulfur is a non-metallic chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. While you might recognize it by its distinctive yellow color and association with volcanic regions, sulfur's true significance extends far beyond these surface characteristics. It's a fundamental building block of life, a cornerstone of industrial chemistry, and increasingly, a key player in sustainable technology development. This versatile element bridges the ancient and modern worlds, from its use in religious purification rituals to its critical role in next-generation energy storage systems. The Fundamental Chemistry Of Element 16 Sulfur occupies a unique position in the periodic table as a member of the chalcogen family (Group 16), sitting just below oxygen. With six valence electrons in its outer shell, sulfur exhibits remarkable chemical versatility, forming compounds with oxidation states ranging from -2 to +6. This flexibility allows sulfur to participate in an extraordinary variety of chemical reactions and form countless compounds essential to both life and industry. At room temperature, sulfur appears as a bright yellow, crystalline solid with a relatively low melting point of 115.21°C (239.38°F). Its softness—rating just 1.5-2.5 on the Mohs scale—makes it easy to handle and process. The element's poor conductivity of both heat and electricity classifies it as an excellent insulator, while its density of approximately 2.07 g/cm³ makes it relatively light compared to many other solid elements. Perhaps most fascinating is sulfur's ability to exist in more allotropes than any other element, with over 30 known forms. The most common form, alpha-sulfur, consists of crown-shaped rings containing eight sulfur atoms (S₈). When heated above 95.3°C, it transforms into beta-sulfur, and at higher temperatures, it can form long polymer chains that give molten sulfur its characteristic increase in viscosity. This structural diversity contributes to sulfur's wide range of applications and behaviors under different conditions. Nature's Sulfur Treasury Spans Earth & Life Sulfur's presence in nature reflects its cosmic abundance and geological importance. Volcanic environments serve as nature's most dramatic sulfur factories, where hot gases rich in hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide condense around vents and fumaroles, creating stunning yellow deposits. Indonesia's Mount Ijen, where miners still extract "devil's gold" from the active crater, provides a modern example of this ancient geological process. Beyond volcanic regions, vast sulfur deposits lie hidden in salt domes along the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. These formations, created over millions of years as salt layers rose through overlying rocks, contain cap rocks where bacterial action has converted sulfate minerals into nearly pure elemental sulfur. Similar deposits occur in evaporite formations worldwide, where ancient seas evaporated and left behind layers of gypsum and anhydrite. The sulfur cycle represents one of Earth's major biogeochemical processes, with the element constantly moving between the atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Marine phytoplankton alone release millions of tons of dimethyl sulfide annually, which influences cloud formation and climate regulation. Rivers transport weathered sulfate from rocks to oceans, where it may be incorporated into marine sediments or released back to the atmosphere, completing this grand planetary circulation. In living organisms, sulfur appears primarily in the amino acids methionine and cysteine, which are essential components of proteins. Every cell in your body contains sulfur, from the keratin that strengthens your hair and nails to the enzymes that catalyze vital biochemical reactions. This biological sulfur ultimately derives from the environment, connecting all life to the planet's sulfur cycle. From Divine Brimstone To Chemical Revolution Humanity's relationship with sulfur stretches back to antiquity, when this "burning stone" held both practical and spiritual significance. Ancient Greeks recognized sulfur's pesticidal properties as early as 1000 BCE, while Romans burned it to fumigate public buildings and purify sacred spaces. The element's association with divine wrath—as the "brimstone" of biblical texts—reflects its connection to volcanic activity and its ability to burn with an otherworldly blue flame. Medieval alchemists elevated sulfur to one of their three fundamental principles (tria prima), alongside mercury and salt. To these early chemists, sulfur represented the soul, combustibility, and masculine energy. Its alchemical symbol—a triangle atop a cross—became known as "Satan's Cross" due to religious associations with hellfire. Despite these mystical overtones, alchemists' experiments with sulfur laid crucial groundwork for modern chemistry. The transformation from mystical substance to industrial commodity began with the development of gunpowder, where sulfur served as one of three essential ingredients. Sicily dominated global sulfur production for over a century, with its volcanic deposits providing up to 75% of the world's supply by the mid-1800s. This monopoly ended with Herman Frasch's revolutionary extraction process in 1891, which used superheated water to melt underground sulfur deposits and pump them to the surface as 99.5% pure liquid sulfur. A Workhorse Element Powering Modern Industry Today, sulfur stands as one of the most important industrial elements, with over 246 million tonnes of sulfuric acid produced annually—making it the world's largest volume industrial chemical. This remarkable scale reflects sulfur's central role in countless manufacturing processes, from fertilizer production to petroleum refining. The fertilizer industry consumes approximately 60% of global sulfur production, using sulfuric acid to convert phosphate rock into soluble fertilizers that feed billions of people. Without sulfur, modern agriculture would collapse, as it's now recognized as the fourth essential macronutrient alongside nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. This agricultural connection creates a direct link between sulfur availability and global food security. In petroleum refining, sulfur removal has become increasingly critical as environmental regulations tighten. The desulfurization process not only reduces harmful emissions but also produces elemental sulfur as a valuable byproduct. Over 80% of today's sulfur supply comes from this "involuntary production" during oil and gas processing, representing a remarkable shift from traditional mining. The rubber industry owes its existence to Charles Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization, where sulfur creates cross-links between polymer chains, transforming sticky natural rubber into durable materials suitable for tires and countless other applications. Meanwhile, the pharmaceutical industry relies on sulfur compounds in over 362 FDA-approved drugs, from antibiotics to anti-inflammatory medications. Life's Essential Element Supports Every Cell Sulfur's biological importance cannot be overstated—it's the third most abundant mineral in the human body after calcium and phosphorus. The sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine play crucial roles in protein structure and function. Methionine serves as the starting amino acid for virtually all protein synthesis, while cysteine forms disulfide bonds that give proteins their three-dimensional shapes and stability. These sulfur connections appear throughout the body's structural proteins. Keratin, rich in cysteine, provides strength and flexibility to hair, skin, and nails. Collagen and elastin, which give structure to connective tissues, also depend on sulfur cross-links for their mechanical properties. The body's most important antioxidant, glutathione, requires cysteine for its synthesis and function in protecting cells from oxidative damage. Dietary sulfur comes primarily from protein-rich foods, with eggs, meat, fish, and dairy providing abundant methionine. Plant sources include legumes, nuts, and whole grains, while garlic, onions, and cruciferous vegetables offer unique sulfur compounds with additional health benefits. Adults typically need about 1,000 mg of methionine daily, though requirements may increase with age or during illness. Recent research has revealed sulfur's involvement in cellular communication and gene regulation through compounds like S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which serves as the body's primary methyl donor. This connection links sulfur metabolism to epigenetics, aging, and disease prevention, opening new avenues for therapeutic interventions. Environmental Guardian & Climate Player Sulfur's environmental story encompasses both challenges and opportunities. Industrial sulfur dioxide emissions have caused significant environmental damage through acid rain, which harms forests, lakes, and buildings. However, strict regulations have dramatically reduced these emissions in developed countries, with the EPA strengthening standards as recently as December 2024. The natural sulfur cycle plays a complex role in climate regulation. Volcanic eruptions can inject millions of tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, creating sulfate aerosols that reflect sunlight and cool the planet. The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption demonstrated this effect dramatically, causing global temperatures to drop by 0.5°C for nearly two years. This cooling effect has sparked controversial research into stratospheric aerosol injection as a potential geoengineering solution to climate change. Scientists estimate that deliberately adding sulfur compounds to the upper atmosphere could offset global warming at a cost of $2-8 billion annually. However, this approach carries significant risks, including potential damage to the ozone layer and unpredictable changes to regional weather patterns. On the positive side, stricter environmental regulations have transformed sulfur from a pollutant into a valuable resource. Modern oil refineries and power plants capture sulfur compounds that would otherwise enter the atmosphere, converting them into useful products. This circular economy approach exemplifies how environmental protection can drive innovation and resource efficiency. Pioneering Tomorrow's Sustainable Technologies The future of sulfur looks remarkably bright, particularly in energy storage technology. Lithium-sulfur batteries promise to revolutionize electric vehicles and renewable energy storage, offering theoretical energy densities of 2,600 Wh/kg—nearly five times that of current lithium-ion batteries. The market for these next-generation batteries is projected to grow from $1 billion in 2024 to nearly $30 billion by 2034. Recent breakthroughs have addressed long-standing challenges in sulfur battery technology. Researchers at UC San Diego developed a sulfur-iodine crystalline material that increases conductivity by 11 orders of magnitude, while teams at Drexel University created batteries lasting over 4,000 cycles using a stable form of sulfur. These advances bring commercial sulfur batteries closer to reality, potentially transforming transportation and grid storage. Nanotechnology represents another frontier for sulfur applications. The sulfur nanoparticle market is expected to reach $2.5 billion by 2033, driven by applications in agriculture, medicine, and environmental remediation. Scientists are developing sulfur-based materials that can capture pollutants, deliver drugs, and enhance crop yields while maintaining environmental sustainability. Perhaps most intriguingly, researchers have identified sulfur dioxide as a potential "fourth gasotransmitter" in the human body, joining nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide as signaling molecules. This discovery could lead to new therapeutic approaches for cardiovascular disease, inflammation, and other conditions. About Sulfur Sulfur is a remarkably versatile element with fascinating properties that span from the everyday to the extraordinary. This yellow solid can float on water, burns with an eerie blue flame, and exists in massive volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io that shoot sulfur hundreds of miles into space. Throughout history, humans have found countless uses for sulfur—from ancient Egyptians incorporating it into mummification processes to medieval doctors prescribing therapeutic sulfur baths, to the Chinese revolutionizing warfare by using it in gunpowder over a millennium ago. In nature, sulfur creates beautiful crystalline "flowers," enables bacteria to survive in extreme deep-sea volcanic vents exceeding 100°C, and is responsible for familiar phenomena like the tears from cutting onions and the notorious smell of skunk spray. This element holds the record for having the most structural forms of any element (over 30 allotropes), can transform through a rainbow of colors when heated, glows yellow-green under UV light, and even forms natural glass in volcanic conditions. From its essential role in plant protein synthesis to its presence in diamond mines and contribution to the distinctive smell of rain, sulfur proves to be one of nature's most intriguing and indispensable elements. Sulfur floats on water – Despite being a solid element, sulfur has a lower density than water, making it one of the few non-metallic elements that can float. It burns with a blue flame – When sulfur combusts, it produces a distinctive blue flame and the pungent smell of sulfur dioxide, which is why it was historically associated with supernatural phenomena. Sulfur exists on other planets – Jupiter's moon Io has massive sulfur volcanoes that spew yellow sulfur compounds hundreds of miles into space, creating the most volcanically active body in our solar system. Ancient Egyptians used sulfur for mummification – Sulfur compounds were used in the preservation process, helping to prevent bacterial decay in mummified remains. Sulfur can form "flowers" – When sulfur vapor condenses rapidly, it creates delicate, flower-like crystalline formations called "flowers of sulfur." It's the reason onions make you cry – Onions release sulfur compounds when cut, which react with the moisture in your eyes to form sulfuric acid, causing tears. Sulfur springs can preserve organic matter – The La Brea Tar Pits contain sulfur compounds that have perfectly preserved plants, animals, and insects for thousands of years. It changes color when heated – Sulfur transforms from yellow to red to brown to black as temperature increases, then back to yellow when cooled. Sulfur bacteria can live in extreme conditions – Some sulfur-eating bacteria thrive in temperatures over 100°C (212°F) near deep-sea volcanic vents, representing some of Earth's most ancient life forms. Medieval doctors prescribed sulfur baths – Sulfur hot springs were believed to cure everything from skin diseases to arthritis, and many historic spa towns were built around sulfur springs. Sulfur can explode when mixed with certain metals – Combinations of sulfur with potassium or sodium can create explosive compounds that ignite with just a spark. It's essential for plant protein synthesis – Plants cannot manufacture proteins without sulfur, making it as crucial as nitrogen for plant growth and survival. Sulfur compounds give skunks their smell – The notorious skunk spray contains sulfur-based thiols, which are among the most potent odor molecules known to science. Ancient Chinese used sulfur in gunpowder over 1,000 years ago – Sulfur was one of the three key ingredients in the world's first explosive powder, revolutionizing warfare and construction. Sulfur can form naturally occurring glass – In certain volcanic conditions, sulfur can cool so rapidly that it forms a natural glass-like substance called sulfur glass. It glows under ultraviolet light – Pure sulfur exhibits fluorescence when exposed to UV radiation, glowing with a distinctive yellow-green color. Sulfur has more allotropes than any other element – With over 30 different molecular arrangements, sulfur holds the record for structural diversity among all chemical elements. Diamond mines often contain sulfur – Many diamond deposits are associated with sulfur-rich geological formations, and sulfur inclusions can sometimes be found within diamonds themselves. Sulfur can be used as a natural pesticide – Elemental sulfur is still widely used in organic farming as an environmentally friendly fungicide and insecticide. The smell of rain contains sulfur – That distinctive "petrichor" smell after rainfall partly comes from sulfur compounds released by soil bacteria and carried in the air. Source:  What Is Sulfur? - Brian D. Colwell   Prehistoric Times–Present — Sulfur as a Useful Industrial Material Sulfur has been used by humans for thousands of years. Major uses include: Medicine Fumigation Metallurgy Religious rituals Gunpowder Fertilizers Petroleum refining Pharmaceuticals Rubber vulcanization Mining Chemical manufacturing By the nineteenth century, sulfur had become one of the foundational materials of the industrial age. 1840s–1900s — Industrial Sulfur Era Sulfur becomes essential for: Sulfuric acid production Fertilizer manufacturing Explosives Petroleum refining Chemical manufacturing 1900s–Present — Sulfur Becomes a Strategic Industrial Material Sulfur is used extensively in: Fertilizers Petroleum refining Pharmaceuticals Rubber Mining Batteries Chemical manufacturing Today, sulfur remains one of the most important industrial elements in the world. Most production now comes from oil and natural gas processing rather than traditional sulfur mining. 1917–1945 — Sulfur Becomes a Major Chemical Warfare Material Sulfur mustard, commonly called "mustard gas," becomes one of the most important chemical weapons of the twentieth century. The United States, Germany, Britain, and other powers conduct research, production, testing, and military deployment programs involving sulfur-based chemical agents. Thousands of military personnel are exposed during testing, training, and battlefield incidents. 1917 — United States Enters Chemical Warfare Program After entering World War I, the United States rapidly expands chemical weapons research. Research includes: Chlorine Phosgene Mustard gas 1918 — Mustard Gas Production Begins The United States begins large-scale production of sulfur mustard. 1918 — American University Experiment Station A major U.S. chemical warfare research center is established in Washington, D.C. 1918–1919 — World War I Mustard Gas Testing Military testing and training involving chemical agents are conducted. 1920s–1930s — Continued Chemical Warfare Research Chemical weapons programs are retained and expanded despite international restrictions.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1942–1945 — Secret Mustard Gas and Lewisite Human Experiments Thousands of U.S. servicemen participate in classified chemical warfare experiments involving mustard gas and Lewisite. Subjects were exposed through: Gas chambers Field exercises Patch tests directly applied to the skin Protective equipment trials Many participants were not fully informed about the nature of the tests. Records later showed that some suffered: Severe chemical burns Eye injuries Respiratory damage Long-term health complications Participants were often ordered not to discuss their involvement. 1993 — Mustard Gas Testing Publicly Acknowledged The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs publicly acknowledges the World War II mustard gas and Lewisite testing programs. The disclosure follows the declassification of records and increased congressional scrutiny. 1997 — Presidential Apology President Bill Clinton formally apologizes to veterans who were subjected to secret chemical and radiation experiments without informed consent. During a White House ceremony, Clinton states that the government failed to uphold the rights and dignity of those who participated in the experiments. 1954 — Castle Bravo Fallout and Project 4.1 The U.S. conducts the Castle Bravo nuclear test in the Marshall Islands. The explosion produces a much larger yield than expected, exposing residents of nearby islands to radioactive fallout. Following the accident, the U.S. launches Project 4.1, a classified medical study designed to evaluate the effects of radiation exposure on affected populations. Approximately 239 Marshall Islanders receive significant radiation exposure. Some Marshallese later argue that the medical study had been planned before the test, while U.S. officials maintain the exposure was accidental and the study was created afterward. 1954–1960s — Long-Term Radiation Monitoring Marshall Islanders exposed during Castle Bravo are monitored for years by U.S. medical researchers. Researchers document: Thyroid disease Radiation-related illnesses Growth abnormalities Long-term health effects The program later becomes a major source of controversy regarding informed consent and the ethics of Cold War human experimentation. 1940s–1970s period is when you start seeing a cluster of government human-subject programs that later become controversial: 1942–1945 — Mustard Gas and Lewisite tests 1945–1947 — Postwar radiation experiments begin 1950–1953 — BLUEBIRD / ARTICHOKE 1953 — MKUltra 1954 — Project 4.1 (Marshall Islands) 1963–1973 — Holmesburg Prison experiments 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study (running throughout much of this period) *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1942–1945 — Naval and Army Chamber Tests Gas chamber, field, and skin-patch exposure experiments are conducted. 1943–1945 — Race-Based Military Experiments Some studies separate participants by racial groups, including: African American soldiers Japanese American soldiers Puerto Rican soldiers White soldiers December 2, 1943 — Bari Air Raid An American ship carrying mustard gas munitions is struck during a German air raid on Bari, Italy. Hundreds of military personnel and civilians are exposed. 1945–1960s — Cold War Chemical Warfare Research Mustard gas remains part of U.S. chemical weapons stockpiles. 1991 — Human Experiment Records Receive Wider Public Attention Investigations and media reporting bring renewed scrutiny to wartime chemical testing programs. 1993 — Chemical Weapons Convention International treaty bans chemical weapons. 1990s–2023 — Chemical Weapons Destruction Program The United States destroys its declared chemical weapons stockpiles and dismantles Cold War chemical weapon inventories. The U.S. completed destruction of its declared chemical weapons stockpile on July 7, 2023. The OPCW confirmed that all declared chemical weapons stockpiles under the treaty had been verified as destroyed. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1f357cb8-206e-4a6b-acb7-42d2ce9fcfba-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1f357cb8-206e-4a6b-acb7-42d2ce9fcfba-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> How It Started During World War I, armies used mustard gas as a chemical weapon. Doctors noticed something unusual in exposed soldiers: Mustard gas damaged the bone marrow. White blood cell counts dropped dramatically. The chemical appeared to suppress rapidly dividing cells. Researchers later wondered whether a modified version of these chemicals might be used against cancers that also divide rapidly. World War II Research During World War II, scientists studied related compounds called nitrogen mustards. In 1942, physicians Louis Goodman and Alfred Gilman treated a patient with lymphoma using a nitrogen mustard compound. The tumor temporarily shrank, demonstrating that chemicals could be used to attack cancer cells. This became one of the foundations of modern chemotherapy. Important Distinction People often hear "chemotherapy came from mustard gas" and assume cancer patients are literally receiving battlefield mustard gas. That is not the case. Sulfur mustard (the warfare agent) is extremely toxic. Chemotherapy drugs are chemically modified compounds developed from the same scientific observations and related chemical families. Modern chemotherapy includes many drug classes that have nothing to do with mustard compounds. Examples of Mustard-Derived Chemotherapy Drugs Some cancer drugs descended from the nitrogen mustard research include: Mechlorethamine Cyclophosphamide Ifosfamide Chlorambucil Melphalan Many are still used today. Why This Matters The basic principle discovered was that substances that damage DNA can sometimes kill cancer cells because cancer cells divide rapidly. The challenge has always been that healthy cells also divide, which is why chemotherapy can cause: Hair loss Low blood counts Nausea Mouth sores Increased infection risk In simple terms: the first successful chemotherapy drugs grew out of research on mustard-gas-related chemicals, but modern cancer treatment is much broader than that one origin story. The Rise of the Khazars  550–650 AD — The Birth of the Khazars As the great Turkic empires of Central Asia fractured and collapsed, new powers emerged across the Eurasian steppe. Among them were the Khazars, a people who would eventually control one of the most valuable crossroads on Earth. Their homeland lay between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, north of the Caucasus Mountains, in a region where Europe, Asia, and the Middle East converged.  To the south stood the Byzantine Empire, the surviving eastern half of Rome. To the southeast, Islam was beginning its rapid expansion from Arabia. To the north stretched forests, rivers, and the scattered settlements of Slavic peoples. To the east lay the endless grasslands of the Eurasian steppe. The Khazars occupied the narrow space between these worlds, a position that would shape their destiny for centuries.  Unlike Rome or Persia, the Khazars did not inherit ancient cities, monumental architecture, or vast agricultural systems. Their strength came from mobility. They were horsemen, traders, diplomats, and warriors who understood the strategic value of controlling movement across immense distances. By the middle of the seventh century they had emerged as an independent regional power, occupying territory through which merchants, armies, and travelers increasingly passed.  The Khazars belonged to a long tradition of steppe peoples who had dominated the grasslands north of the Black Sea. Before them came the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, and Göktürks. Each had controlled portions of the same strategic corridor linking Europe and Asia. The Khazars inherited not only territory but also the military traditions, trade networks, and political realities of the steppe world.  Their early society revolved around horses, clan loyalties, trade, and warfare. A skilled rider could travel enormous distances across the open grasslands, making mobility one of the foundations of Khazar power. The rivers that crossed their territory connected distant regions, while the Caucasus Mountains provided gateways into the Middle East. Geography placed the Khazars in a position few kingdoms could match.  By 650 AD, they stood poised to become one of the most influential powers of the medieval world.  650–750 AD — Expansion and the Arab–Khazar Wars The century following the rise of the Khazars was marked by expansion, warfare, and growing wealth. As the Islamic Caliphates pushed northward through the Caucasus, the Khazars became one of the principal barriers between the Muslim world and the Eurasian steppe. Repeated campaigns turned the Caucasus into one of the most contested frontiers of the medieval world.  Arab armies crossed mountain passes seeking to extend their influence beyond the Caucasus while Khazar forces fought to preserve their independence and control of the northern trade routes. Neither side achieved a permanent victory. Instead, decades of conflict established the Khazars as a major military power capable of resisting one of the most formidable empires of the age.  These wars were not small border skirmishes. Entire armies marched across difficult terrain, cities changed hands, and thousands of soldiers died in campaigns that stretched across generations. The Khazars emerged from these struggles with a reputation as formidable warriors capable of defending their territory against one of the most powerful expansionist forces of the era.  While armies fought, commerce flourished. Merchants continued moving through Khazar territory carrying silk from Asia, silver from the Islamic world, and furs from the forests of the north. The Khazars recognized that prosperity came not only from conquest but from controlling the movement of goods. Their rulers collected tolls, customs duties, and transit fees from merchants traveling between continents.  Unlike many kingdoms, the Khazars often did not own the products that generated their wealth. Instead, they controlled the roads, rivers, ports, and caravan routes through which those products passed. Every merchant seeking protection, every caravan crossing the steppe, and every ship moving along the Volga contributed to the prosperity of the kingdom.  By the end of the eighth century, the Khazars had become one of the wealthiest powers of the Eurasian steppe. Their position between Europe, Asia, and the Islamic world allowed them to profit from commerce on a scale few contemporary states could match.  740–850 AD — The Jewish Kingdom of the Steppe As Khazar wealth and influence reached their peak, the ruling elite made one of the most unusual decisions in medieval history by adopting Judaism.  Surrounded by Christian Byzantium and powerful Muslim Caliphates, the Khazars occupied a delicate geopolitical position. Conversion to Christianity might have increased Byzantine influence over the kingdom. Conversion to Islam might have drawn the Khazars into the orbit of the Caliphates. Judaism offered a third path, allowing the Khazar rulers to maintain independence while preserving relations with both neighboring powers.  Exactly how many Khazars converted remains debated. Most historians believe the royal court and segments of the ruling elite embraced Judaism, while much of the broader population remained religiously diverse. Nevertheless, the conversion transformed the kingdom into something unique. No major European kingdom followed the same path. No great Christian empire did so. No major Islamic state made such a choice. Yet on the Eurasian steppe, a powerful kingdom adopted Judaism while standing between two rival civilizations.  Figures such as Bulan, Obadiah, and Joseph appear in later traditions and correspondence associated with the kingdom. Their names became linked to one of the most fascinating religious transformations of the medieval era. Although many details remain uncertain, the conversion ensured that the Khazars would occupy a unique place in world history.  At the same time, the capital city of Atil emerged as one of the great commercial centers of Eurasia. Situated near the Volga delta, it connected the northern forests of Europe with the Islamic world and Central Asia. Contemporary accounts describe a bustling city filled with merchants, warehouses, markets, docks, and ships arriving from distant lands.  The diversity of Atil impressed many visitors. Jews, Christians, Muslims, and followers of older pagan traditions lived and traded within the same commercial environment. Multiple languages could be heard in the markets. Goods arrived from Scandinavia, Byzantium, Persia, and Central Asia. The city reflected the kingdom itself: a meeting place where civilizations intersected.  During this period the Khazars reached the height of their influence. Their armies protected trade routes, their rulers governed a prosperous state, and their merchants participated in one of the largest commercial systems of the medieval world. For a brief period, the Khazar kingdom stood at the center of Eurasia, connecting worlds that otherwise might never have met.  Wealth, Government, Religion, and the Viking Connection  850–950 AD — Wealth, Diversity, and Power By the ninth century, the Khazar Empire had become one of the most prosperous trading states in Eurasia. Its wealth rested not upon vast agricultural estates or great manufacturing centers, but upon control of movement. The kingdom occupied the space where multiple worlds met, allowing Khazar rulers to profit from commerce flowing in every direction.  From the forests of the north came furs, honey, wax, timber, and amber. From Asia arrived silk, spices, precious stones, and luxury goods. Silver coins poured northward from the Islamic world, while horses, livestock, and slaves moved across the steppe. Merchants traveled constantly between Scandinavia, Byzantium, Persia, and Central Asia, carrying goods that changed hands many times before reaching their final destination.  The Khazars often never owned these products. Their prosperity came from controlling the routes through which the products moved. River crossings generated revenue. Caravan routes generated revenue. Ports generated revenue. Merchants paid tolls, duties, and fees for protection. The kingdom's treasury expanded because the Khazars sat astride one of the busiest commercial corridors in the medieval world.  This prosperity allowed the Khazars to maintain a stable and sophisticated state. Unlike many steppe powers that depended almost entirely on military conquest, the Khazars benefited from a steady flow of trade that continued year after year. Wealth created stability, and stability attracted even more merchants.  The kingdom's political system reflected its unusual character. At its apex stood the Khagan, a ruler whose authority carried sacred significance. Foreign visitors often described the Khagan as a semi-sacred figure who symbolized the unity and legitimacy of the state. Yet the day-to-day responsibilities of government rested largely with another official known as the Bek.  The Bek directed military campaigns, diplomacy, taxation, and administration. While the Khagan represented spiritual and ceremonial authority, the Bek exercised practical power. This dual structure fascinated many outside observers because it differed from the systems found in most neighboring kingdoms.  The arrangement allowed the Khazars to separate sacred legitimacy from political administration, creating a balance that helped maintain stability across a vast and diverse territory.   The Religious World of the Khazars  Although the conversion of the ruling elite to Judaism remains the most famous aspect of Khazar history, the kingdom was never exclusively Jewish. Long before the royal court embraced Judaism, the Khazars practiced forms of Turkic paganism rooted in the traditions of the Eurasian steppe.  Many likely worshipped Tengri, the sky god revered by numerous Turkic peoples. The heavens, nature, ancestral spirits, and the rhythms of the natural world played important roles in their spiritual life. Horses held particular significance, symbolizing status, mobility, military power, and wealth. The steppe itself shaped religious belief just as surely as it shaped daily life.  Yet the Khazars occupied one of the most cosmopolitan regions in the medieval world. Christianity entered through Byzantine influence. Islam arrived through merchants and diplomatic contacts with the Caliphates. Judaism spread through trade networks and eventually gained prominence within the royal court. By the ninth century, the kingdom contained followers of multiple religions living side by side.  Contemporary accounts suggest that different religious communities often maintained their own legal traditions and judges. While modern notions of religious tolerance should not be projected backward onto the medieval world, the Khazar kingdom appears to have been unusually diverse for its time.  The result was a society where traders, diplomats, travelers, and settlers from many backgrounds could operate within the same commercial environment. Religious diversity became one of the defining characteristics of the Khazar state.  Atil — Capital of the Crossroads  At the center of this world stood Atil, the Khazar capital. Located near the Volga delta, the city occupied one of the most strategic positions in Eurasia. It functioned as a gateway between the northern forests, the Islamic world, Central Asia, and the Black Sea region.  Merchants arriving in Atil encountered a city unlike most others of the age. Ships unloaded cargo from distant lands. Warehouses stored goods awaiting transport. Markets bustled with activity as traders negotiated deals involving commodities from multiple continents.  A visitor might hear numerous languages spoken within a single day. Scandinavian merchants could be found alongside Muslim traders, Byzantine representatives, Jewish scholars, and local steppe peoples. The city embodied the commercial spirit that made the Khazar kingdom wealthy.  The prosperity of Atil reflected the prosperity of the empire itself. As long as trade continued to flow, the city flourished. For generations, Atil served as one of the most important commercial hubs in Eurasia.  850–950 AD — The Viking Connection While the Khazars were enjoying their golden age, dramatic changes were taking place in the far north. Scandinavian traders and adventurers were beginning to explore the river systems of Eastern Europe. Many of these men, known today as Vikings or Varangians, discovered that the rivers flowing southward offered access to some of the richest markets in the world.  Traveling through what is now Russia and Ukraine, they moved along waterways that eventually connected to Khazar territory. These routes linked the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, creating commercial highways stretching across thousands of miles.  The relationship between the Vikings and the Khazars proved mutually beneficial. Scandinavian merchants brought furs, amber, weapons, and slaves from the north. In return, they acquired silver, luxury goods, and products arriving from the Islamic world and Asia.  The scale of this commerce can still be seen today. Thousands of Islamic silver coins discovered in Scandinavian hoards originated from trade networks that passed through Khazar territory. The silver that enriched Viking societies often traveled through Khazar-controlled routes before reaching the north.  For a time, both peoples prospered from this arrangement. The Vikings gained access to wealthy markets. The Khazars collected tolls and duties from the movement of goods. Commerce tied together regions that would otherwise have remained isolated from one another.  Yet the very success of these trade routes contained the seeds of future problems. As Scandinavian influence expanded and new political centers emerged along the rivers of Eastern Europe, powerful rivals began to recognize the enormous wealth generated by commerce. Eventually, some of those rivals would seek not merely to use the trade routes but to control them.  By the middle of the tenth century, the forces that would eventually destroy the Khazar Empire were already gathering beyond the horizon. The kingdom remained wealthy and powerful, but the balance that had sustained it for centuries was beginning to change.  The Fall, Disappearance, and Legacy of the Khazars  900–965 AD — Vikings, Rus, and the Changing World During the tenth century, the commercial networks that had enriched the Khazars for generations became increasingly contested. Scandinavian traders, adventurers, and settlers continued moving southward through the river systems of Eastern Europe, carrying goods between the Baltic and the Islamic world. What had once been a loose network of trading communities was gradually evolving into something more powerful.  Along the rivers that connected northern Europe to Byzantium, new political centers emerged. The Rus, originally linked to Scandinavian traders and warriors, increasingly established themselves as rulers rather than mere merchants. Cities such as Kyiv grew in wealth and influence as commerce expanded along the Dnieper and Volga river systems.  For many years the Khazars and the Rus benefited from one another. The Khazars profited from trade moving through their territory, while the Rus gained access to the lucrative markets of the south. Over time, however, cooperation gave way to competition. The Rus increasingly understood that the enormous wealth flowing through the region could be controlled directly rather than shared with Khazar authorities.  At the same time, pressure mounted along the steppe frontiers. Nomadic peoples such as the Pechenegs competed for territory and influence. Trade routes shifted as new commercial centers developed. Alliances that had once strengthened the Khazar kingdom became less reliable. Although the empire remained prosperous, the foundations of its power were becoming increasingly fragile.  The challenge facing the Khazars was not a single enemy but a changing world. The trade networks that had made them wealthy were evolving. New powers were rising. Old assumptions no longer held. The kingdom that had dominated the crossroads of Eurasia for centuries found itself confronting forces it could no longer fully control.  965–969 AD — The Fall of the Khazar Empire  The decisive blow came from the north under the leadership of Sviatoslav I of Kyiv. Unlike many rulers who sought alliances or tributary arrangements, Sviatoslav pursued direct control. He understood that whoever controlled the trade routes controlled the wealth of the region, and he intended for that wealth to flow through Rus hands rather than Khazar territory.  Beginning in the 960s, his armies launched a series of campaigns against the Khazar state. Strongholds that had guarded trade routes for generations came under attack. The fortress of Sarkel, one of the most important defensive positions in the kingdom, fell to Rus forces. Other centers soon followed.  The greatest blow came with the destruction of Atil. For centuries the city had served as the commercial heart of the Khazar world, linking Scandinavia, Byzantium, Central Asia, and the Islamic world. Merchants from distant lands had crowded its markets, and wealth from three continents had flowed through its docks and warehouses. Now the city that symbolized Khazar prosperity faced devastation.  The fall of Atil represented more than the loss of a capital. It signaled the collapse of the system upon which the entire kingdom depended. Trade routes shifted. Political authority disintegrated. Local rulers and neighboring peoples filled the vacuum left by the declining empire.  The destruction was surprisingly swift. A state that had stood among the most influential powers of Eurasia for centuries ceased to function as a major political force within only a few years. The roads remained. The rivers continued to flow. Merchants still traveled between continents. Yet the kingdom that had once controlled those movements disappeared from the map.   After 969 AD — The Disappearance of the Khazars  The fall of the empire did not mean the immediate disappearance of the people. Communities survived in various regions, and remnants of Khazar influence continued to appear in historical records for generations. Yet the kingdom itself never recovered.  Unlike the Roman Empire, which left successor states, or dynasties such as the Romanovs and Habsburgs, whose descendants can still be traced today, the Khazars gradually faded from history as a distinct people. Their cities declined. Their political institutions vanished. Their language disappeared from common use. Over time they were absorbed into neighboring populations.  Most historians believe Khazar descendants merged into a variety of surrounding communities, including Slavic, Turkic, Caucasian, and Crimean populations. Rather than disappearing overnight, they dissolved gradually into the peoples who inherited their former lands.  This process was not unusual for steppe civilizations. The Scythians, Sarmatians, and many other powerful peoples had experienced similar fates. They rose to prominence, controlled vast territories, and eventually blended into the populations around them. The Khazars followed a pattern repeated many times across Eurasian history.  Yet their disappearance continues to fascinate historians because of the contrast between their former power and their later obscurity. For centuries they had occupied one of the richest crossroads in the medieval world. Then, within a relatively short period, they became difficult to trace.  900–1200 AD — The Khazars and the Early Roma  One of the more intriguing comparisons in Eurasian history involves the Khazars and the ancestors of today's Roma. During the final centuries of Khazar history, the earliest stages of the Roma migration were beginning far to the east.  The Khazars flourished between approximately 650 and 969 AD. The ancestors of the Roma began moving westward from northwestern India sometime between roughly 900 and 1200 AD. This means that for a brief period, the decline of one people overlapped with the emergence of another.  The contrast between them could hardly have been greater. The Khazars controlled territory, governed cities, collected taxes, maintained armies, and dominated trade routes. They occupied the top of the political and economic system. The Roma, by contrast, moved through territories controlled by others. Rather than governing kingdoms, they adapted to changing circumstances as they traveled across Asia and Europe.  Yet similarities existed as well. Both peoples became associated with mobility, horses, and long-distance movement. Both are known largely through the writings of outsiders rather than extensive collections of their own surviving literature. Both demonstrated remarkable adaptability in regions where political boundaries changed frequently.  The role of horses illustrates the difference between them. For the Khazars, horses represented military power and imperial authority. Their cavalry armies helped build and defend a kingdom stretching across the steppe. For the Roma, horses became tools of economic survival, contributing to occupations that allowed communities to maintain independence while living among larger societies.  The Khazars are remembered because they became powerful. The Roma are remembered because they endured. One people built an empire and gradually disappeared. The other survived for centuries without an empire while preserving a recognizable identity across dozens of countries.  The Legacy of the Khazars  The story of the Khazars is ultimately part of a much larger story stretching across more than two thousand years of Eurasian history. Before them came the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, and Göktürks. After them came the Kievan Rus, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, and Russian Empire. Different peoples rose and fell, but the geography remained the same.  The corridor between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea remained one of the most valuable strategic regions in the world. Whoever controlled it gained access to trade, resources, military routes, and communication networks connecting entire civilizations. The Khazars happened to occupy that position during one of the most dynamic periods of the medieval age.  Their legacy rests upon several remarkable achievements. They served as a buffer between the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world. They controlled trade routes that linked Scandinavia with the Middle East. They built one of the wealthiest commercial states of the early Middle Ages. Their ruling elite adopted Judaism, making them unique among the major powers of their era. And they demonstrated how a kingdom could prosper through commerce rather than relying solely upon conquest.  Perhaps most importantly, the Khazars remind us that some of history's most influential societies leave behind the fewest monuments. Rome left ruins. Egypt left pyramids. The Khazars left trade routes, scattered records, archaeological traces, and a mystery.  For roughly three centuries they stood at the center of the Eurasian world. Merchants crossed their lands. Empires negotiated with their rulers. Armies fought across their frontiers. Then they gradually passed into history, leaving behind one of the most fascinating stories of the medieval age.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-48" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-48" data-testid= "conversation-turn-98" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> They certainly could be ruthless. The mistake is imagining them as either "peaceful traders" or "brutal warriors." They were both. The Khazars lived in one of the toughest neighborhoods on Earth. To survive between the Byzantine Empire, the Arab Caliphates, Viking traders, Rus princes, and various nomadic tribes, they had to be hard people. Soft kingdoms rarely lasted three centuries on the Eurasian steppe. Their rulers collected tribute from subordinate peoples. They fought major wars against Arab armies for generations. They maintained cavalry forces capable of defending enormous territories. Like virtually every major power of the period, they participated in the slave trade, which was one of the most profitable businesses of the medieval world. Captives from Eastern Europe and the steppe could be sold into markets farther south for significant profit. The Khazars could also be politically ruthless. Several neighboring tribes paid tribute to them, and when tribute stopped, military force often followed. Medieval states generally did not separate economics from coercion. The ability to collect taxes depended upon the ability to punish those who refused to pay. What makes them appear less ruthless than groups like the Huns or Mongols is partly a matter of reputation. The Huns and Mongols became famous for spectacular campaigns of conquest that terrified entire regions. The Khazars built their wealth primarily through trade. As a result, historical sources often emphasize merchants, diplomacy, and commerce rather than battlefield destruction. Yet commerce itself required force. A kingdom cannot collect tolls on thousands of miles of trade routes unless merchants know there is an army behind those tolls. The Khazars maintained that army. If I were writing them into a historical profile, I would describe them this way: The Khazars were pragmatic rather than sentimental. They preferred profit to destruction, but they were fully prepared to use violence when profit, security, or political control required it. Their ideal outcome was not a burned city but a city paying taxes. Not a dead merchant but a merchant paying tolls. Not a conquered people wiped out, but a conquered people sending tribute year after year. That is a different kind of ruthlessness. The Mongols often became rich by conquering. The Khazars often became rich by controlling. For centuries they sat astride the trade routes of Eurasia like toll collectors on the world's busiest highway. Anyone who wanted to move goods between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East often found themselves paying the Khazars first. That required diplomacy, intelligence, and commercial skill—but it also required the willingness to use force against anyone who challenged their authority. So I would not call them "nice." I would call them hard, practical, commercially minded, and capable of considerable ruthlessness when necessary. That combination may be closer to the reality of the Khazar ruling class than either the image of peaceful merchants or savage conquerors. The Khazars disappeared in the strongest sense. Their state collapsed, their language vanished, their ruling institutions disappeared, and over time they were absorbed into surrounding populations. Historians can trace what happened generally, but there is no modern "Khazar nation" and no recognized Khazar royal family carrying on today. They effectively dissolved into history. The Romanovs lost their empire, but not their bloodline. 1917–1918 — The Fall of the Romanovs The Russian Revolution destroyed the Romanov monarchy. In 1918, Nicholas II and his immediate family were executed. To many observers it looked like the dynasty had ended. It had not. Numerous Romanov relatives survived because the dynasty was large. Some escaped Russia, settled across Europe and America, married into other noble families, and continued the bloodline. The empire disappeared, but Romanov descendants remain alive today. The Habsburgs experienced something similar. 1918 — The End of the Habsburg Empire When the First World War ended, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed. The Habsburg monarchy lost its throne, territory, and political power. What had once been one of Europe's most powerful dynasties suddenly became a private family. Yet the Habsburg family itself survived. Members continued living throughout Europe, holding titles socially rather than politically. Today there are still numerous descendants of the Habsburg line. The contrast is interesting: The Khazars The state disappeared. The ruling class disappeared. The language disappeared. The identity largely disappeared. The Romanovs The empire disappeared. The family survived. The Habsburgs The empire disappeared. The family survived. In some ways the Khazars are closer to the: Scythians Sarmatians Huns These were peoples who dominated enormous territories and then gradually merged into later populations. The Romanovs and Habsburgs are closer to what historians call dynastic collapses. Their governments vanished, but the families continued. That's one reason the Khazars remain more mysterious. We can point to living Romanov descendants. We can point to living Habsburg descendants. We cannot do the same with the Khazars. Their empire vanished, and the people who once called themselves Khazars gradually became something else. That's a much rarer outcome in recorded history. Absolutely. In fact, the Khazars are interesting because they are not unique. History is filled with peoples who seemed powerful, important, and permanent in their own time, only to fade into larger populations later. c. 700 BC–300 AD — The Scythians For centuries the Scythians dominated the grasslands north of the Black Sea. Greek historians wrote about them. Persian kings fought them. They controlled trade routes and enormous territories. Then they gradually disappeared. Not because they were exterminated, but because they merged into later populations. Today there is no Scythian nation, no Scythian language, and no Scythian royal family. What survives are archaeological sites, burial mounds, and historical accounts. c. 300 BC–400 AD — The Sarmatians The Sarmatians replaced the Scythians as major powers across much of the steppe. Roman writers discussed them extensively. They fought wars, controlled trade routes, and influenced Europe for centuries. Then they too faded into later populations. Most people today have never heard of them despite their importance. c. 370–500 AD — The Huns When the Huns appeared, they terrified much of Europe. Under Attila the Hun they built one of the most feared empires of late antiquity. After Attila's death, the empire fractured rapidly. Within a few generations, the Huns had largely disappeared as a distinct people. Historians still debate where many of their descendants went. c. 600–1000 AD — The Avars The Avar Khaganate controlled large portions of Central Europe for centuries. They fought Byzantium, collected tribute, and ruled an impressive state centered in the Carpathian Basin. Then they vanished. By the Middle Ages, the Avars had largely been absorbed into surrounding populations. c. 650–969 AD — The Khazars The Khazars fit into this same pattern. For roughly three centuries they stood at the center of Eurasian trade. Then their state collapsed and their identity gradually dissolved into neighboring peoples. c. 1200–1500 AD — The Cumans The Cumans dominated much of the Eurasian steppe before the Mongol invasions. They were powerful enough that kings, emperors, and princes negotiated with them. Today there is no Cuman state. Most descendants were absorbed into neighboring populations. The Goths This one surprises many people. The Visigoths conquered Spain. The Ostrogoths ruled Italy. For a time, the Goths were among the most important peoples in Europe. Then they disappeared as a separate identity. Modern Spaniards are not walking around calling themselves Visigoths. The people remained. The label vanished. The Vandals The Vandals conquered North Africa and even sacked Rome in 455 AD. Their kingdom once controlled major Mediterranean territory. Today they survive mostly as a word in the English language. The people themselves disappeared into later populations. The Picts The Picts ruled much of what is now Scotland for centuries. They fought Romans. They built kingdoms. They left carved stones and monuments. Then they gradually merged with neighboring peoples and vanished as a separate identity. Why It Happens Most people imagine history as nations replacing nations. In reality, history is often populations blending into populations. A kingdom falls. The ruling family disappears. People marry neighbors. Languages change. Religions change. Within a few generations, people who once thought of themselves as Khazars, Goths, Picts, or Scythians begin thinking of themselves as something else. Why the Khazars Fascinate People The Khazars sit in an unusual middle ground. They were important enough that historians know they existed. They were wealthy enough to influence international trade. They were unusual enough to attract attention because of their Jewish ruling elite. Yet they disappeared enough to leave major unanswered questions. That combination—power, wealth, influence, and disappearance—is what keeps people interested in them more than a thousand years later. In many ways, the greatest mystery in history is not how empires rise. It's how entire peoples can dominate a region for centuries and then leave behind little more than ruins, scattered records, and a name in an old chronicle. Broken Treaties and Land Cessions (1778–1871) Approximately 370 treaties ratified by the United States. Millions of acres transferred through treaties, purchases, coercion, and congressional actions. Treaty-making ended in 1871. Many modern tribal legal claims trace back to disputed treaty obligations, land seizures, or compensation agreements. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1457509e-d7bc-4982-ac92-0a23fc69a475-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1457509e-d7bc-4982-ac92-0a23fc69a475-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Native American Treaty Timeline 1763 — Royal Proclamation of 1763 Issued by the British Crown after the French and Indian War. Recognized Native lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. Restricted colonial settlement beyond the proclamation line. 1778 — Treaty of Fort Pitt First treaty between the United States and a Native nation. Signed with the Delaware Nation. 1784 — Treaty of Fort Stanwix Signed with the Iroquois Confederacy after the American Revolution. Large land cessions required. 1785 — Treaty of Hopewell Agreements with Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations. Established boundaries and trade arrangements. 1790 — Indian Trade and Intercourse Act Federal government claims sole authority over Native treaties and land purchases. 1794 — Treaty of Canandaigua Agreement between the United States and the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). Still recognized today by some nations. 1795 — Treaty of Greenville Ends the Northwest Indian War. Native nations cede much of present-day Ohio. 1803 — Louisiana Purchase United States acquires vast territory from France. Native nations are not consulted despite occupying much of the land. 1814 — Treaty of Fort Jackson Following the Creek War. Creek Nation loses approximately 23 million acres. 1825–1828  -Numerous treaties accelerate land cessions in the Southeast. 1830 — Indian Removal Act Not a treaty but one of the most consequential federal laws. Leads to forced removals. 1835 — Treaty of New Echota Signed by a small Cherokee faction. Used as justification for Cherokee removal despite widespread opposition. 1838–1839 — Trail of Tears  -Forced removal of Cherokee people to Indian Territory. 1851 — First Treaty of Fort Laramie Recognizes territories of Plains tribes. Promises safe travel routes and annual payments. 1854 — Treaty of Medicine Creek  -Establishes reservations in the Pacific Northwest. 1855 — Treaty of Walla Walla  -Major treaty involving tribes of the Northwest. 1864 — Sand Creek Massacre  -Occurs despite prior agreements and peace assurances. 1868 — Second Treaty of Fort Laramie Recognizes the Great Sioux Reservation. Includes the Black Hills. 1871 — Peshtigo Fire  -Entire communities erased. Indian Appropriations Act Congress ends treaty-making with tribes. Tribes no longer treated as independent treaty partners. 1874  -Gold discovered in the Black Hills. 1877 Congress seizes the Black Hills after the Great Sioux War. Widely regarded as a violation of the 1868 treaty. 1887 — Dawes Act Breaks up communal tribal lands. Millions of acres transferred out of Native control. 1890 — Wounded Knee Massacre  -Marks the end of the Indian Wars era. 1924 — Indian Citizenship Act  -Grants U.S. citizenship to Native Americans. 1934 — Indian Reorganization Act  -Reverses parts of the Dawes policy. 1946 — Indian Claims Commission  -Created to address historical treaty claims. 1975 — Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act  -Expands tribal authority and self-governance. 1980 — United States v. Sioux Nation Supreme Court rules that the Black Hills were taken illegally. Financial compensation offered. Many Sioux tribes refuse payment and continue to seek return of the land. United States v. Sioux Nation American Buffalo Slaughter Early 1800s — Estimated 20–30 million bison roam North America. 1862 — Homestead Act accelerates settlement of the Great Plains. 1865–1883 — Peak buffalo slaughter. 1867–1868 — Large-scale commercial hide hunting begins along railroad routes. 1870s — Industrial hunting reaches maximum intensity. 1874 — U.S. Congress considers protection legislation, but it is not enacted. 1883–1884 — Southern bison herd effectively destroyed. 1889 — Fewer than 1,000 bison remain in North America. 1905 — American Bison Society founded to help save the species. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-4" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-4" data-testid= "conversation-turn-10" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 900–1100 AD — Germany Becomes Known as "Ashkenaz" in Jewish Tradition Jewish communities living along the Rhine River begin referring to German lands as Ashkenaz, a biblical name that becomes associated with Germany in medieval Jewish writings. Important early Jewish centers include: Mainz Worms Speyer These communities become the foundation of what later becomes known as Ashkenazi Judaism. "Ashkenazi Jews" literally means: Jews of Ashkenaz (Germany) Over subsequent centuries, many Ashkenazi Jewish communities migrate eastward into: Poland Lithuania Ukraine Belarus Russia Hungary As a result, Ashkenazi Jews become strongly associated with Eastern Europe, even though the name Ashkenaz originated with the medieval Jewish communities of Germany. Modern Era — Ashkenazi Jews Worldwide Today, Ashkenazi Jews are the largest Jewish ethnic-cultural population in the world. Estimated population: Approximately 8–10 million people worldwide. Roughly 70–80% of the global Jewish population has at least some Ashkenazi ancestry. Largest populations today are found in: Israel United States Canada United Kingdom France Argentina Australia Ashkenazi Jews are represented across virtually every profession and field, including: Science Medicine Law Finance Banking Academia Journalism Government Technology Engineering Literature Film Music Business Philanthropy Notable areas of influence historically include: European commerce and trade Banking and finance Universities and scholarship Medical research Physics and mathematics Law and public policy Publishing and media Technology and entrepreneurship Ashkenazi communities have produced a disproportionately large number of notable scholars, scientists, physicians, writers, entrepreneurs, and public intellectuals relative to their population size. Major cultural contributions include: Development of Yiddish language and literature Rabbinic scholarship Modern Jewish religious movements Contributions to modern science and medicine Significant influence on twentieth-century literature, music, film, and higher education Today Ashkenazi Jews are widely integrated into the societies in which they live while maintaining religious, cultural, and family traditions that trace back to the medieval Jewish communities of Germany and the Rhineland. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Before the modern era, the Jewish world was much more balanced among several major communities: Ashkenazi Jews (Central and Eastern Europe) Sephardic Jews (Spain, Portugal, North Africa, Ottoman lands) Mizrahi Jews (Middle East and Persia) Smaller communities in places such as India, Ethiopia, Yemen, Central Asia, and China Around 1000 AD, Ashkenazi Jews were actually a relatively small branch of world Jewry. Large Jewish populations existed in places such as Baghdad, Egypt, Spain, and throughout the Islamic world. Several things changed that balance: Population Growth in Eastern Europe From roughly 1500–1900, Ashkenazi populations grew rapidly in: Poland Lithuania Ukraine Belarus Russia Hungary Some historians estimate that by the late 1800s, Ashkenazi Jews made up the vast majority of the world's Jewish population. Decline of Sephardic Centers The expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497 dispersed Sephardic communities. While many rebuilt successful communities in the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, and elsewhere, they never experienced the same population explosion seen in Eastern Europe. Decline of Middle Eastern Communities Ancient Jewish communities in: Iraq Yemen Syria Egypt Iran Often remained relatively small in number. During the 20th century many emigrated, especially after the creation of Israel in 1948. One of the most striking examples is Baghdad. For centuries it was one of the most important Jewish cities in the world. Today its Jewish population is essentially gone. The Holocaust The Holocaust devastated Ashkenazi communities, killing millions. Yet despite this catastrophe, Ashkenazi Jews still remained the largest Jewish subgroup because their population had been so large before World War II. Modern Israel Since 1948, Israel has become a meeting point for: Ashkenazi Jews Sephardic Jews Mizrahi Jews Ethiopian Jews Yemenite Jews Jews from the former Soviet Union Jews from around the world As a result, many Israelis today have mixed ancestry from multiple Jewish traditions. One interesting historical irony is that some of the oldest Jewish communities—such as those in Iraq, Yemen, and parts of Persia—trace their roots back over 2,000 years, while the Ashkenazi communities that emerged in medieval Germany eventually became the largest Jewish population in the world. In terms of sheer numbers, the demographic center of Judaism shifted from the Middle East to Europe, and then in the 20th century shifted again toward Israel and North America. Before the Khazars c. 700 BC–300 AD — The Scythians Long before the Khazars appeared, the grasslands north of the Black Sea were dominated by the Scythians. These Iranian-speaking horse peoples controlled trade routes linking the Greek colonies of the Black Sea with the interior of Eurasia. Ancient writers described them as formidable riders, archers, and traders whose wealth came from their position between civilizations. c. 300 BC–400 AD — The Sarmatians As Scythian power declined, the Sarmatians emerged as the dominant force across much of the steppe. They inherited many of the same trade routes and horse-warrior traditions. For centuries they interacted with Rome, Persia, and various Germanic tribes while controlling movement across large portions of Eastern Europe. c. 370–500 AD — The Huns The arrival of the Huns transformed the steppe world. Their rapid expansion disrupted existing powers and helped trigger migrations throughout Europe. Although their empire did not survive long after the death of Attila the Hun, they demonstrated how a mobile steppe power could dominate enormous territories. c. 550–650 AD — The Göktürks Before the Khazars became independent, they were connected to the broader Turkic world shaped by the Göktürk Empire. The collapse of Göktürk authority created the political vacuum from which the Khazar state emerged. In many ways, the Khazars inherited the trade routes, military traditions, and political structures of earlier Turkic powers. The Khazar Era c. 650–969 AD — The Khazars For roughly three centuries the Khazars controlled the crossroads between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Their kingdom became wealthy from trade, served as a buffer between Byzantium and the Islamic world, and gained lasting fame through the adoption of Judaism by its ruling elite. After the Khazars c. 900–1240 AD — Kievan Rus Even before the Khazars disappeared, the rising state of Kievan Rus was beginning to challenge their dominance. Centered on Kyiv and the river systems of Eastern Europe, the Rus increasingly controlled trade flowing between Scandinavia and Byzantium. The campaigns of Sviatoslav helped bring the Khazar era to an end. c. 900–1200 AD — Pechenegs and Cumans After the fall of the Khazars, various Turkic nomadic peoples moved into portions of the former Khazar sphere. The Pechenegs and later the Cumans controlled large sections of the steppe and frequently interacted with Byzantium, the Rus, and neighboring powers. They inherited many of the same grasslands that had once belonged to the Khazars. c. 1240–1502 AD — The Mongols and the Golden Horde The greatest successor to the Khazar system was probably the Golden Horde. When the Mongols arrived in the thirteenth century, they united vast territories stretching from Eastern Europe to Asia. Like the Khazars, they profited from controlling trade routes across Eurasia, but on an even larger scale. c. 1500–1800 AD — Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Influence Following the decline of Mongol power, the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire became major powers in the region. They controlled important ports, trade routes, and military corridors around the Black Sea. c. 1700–1917 AD — Russian Empire The final great heir to much of the old Khazar territory was the Russian Empire. As Russia expanded southward, it absorbed territories that had once belonged to the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols, and Crimean Tatars. 550–650 AD — The Birth of the Khazars As the great Turkic empires of Central Asia fractured and collapsed, new powers emerged across the Eurasian steppe. Among them were the Khazars, a people who would eventually control one of the most valuable crossroads on Earth. Their homeland lay between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, north of the Caucasus Mountains, in a region where Europe, Asia, and the Middle East converged.  To the south stood the Byzantine Empire, the surviving eastern half of Rome. To the southeast, Islam was beginning its rapid expansion from Arabia. To the north stretched forests, rivers, and the scattered settlements of Slavic peoples. To the east lay the endless grasslands of the Eurasian steppe. The Khazars occupied the narrow space between these worlds, a position that would shape their destiny for centuries.  Unlike Rome or Persia, the Khazars did not inherit ancient cities, monumental architecture, or vast agricultural systems. Their strength came from mobility. They were horsemen, traders, diplomats, and warriors who understood the strategic value of controlling movement across immense distances. By the middle of the seventh century they had emerged as an independent regional power, occupying territory through which merchants, armies, and travelers increasingly passed.   650–750 AD — Expansion and the Arab–Khazar Wars The century following the rise of the Khazars was marked by expansion, warfare, and growing wealth. As the Islamic Caliphates pushed northward through the Caucasus, the Khazars became one of the principal barriers between the Muslim world and the Eurasian steppe. Repeated campaigns turned the Caucasus into one of the most contested frontiers of the medieval world.  Arab armies crossed mountain passes seeking to extend their influence beyond the Caucasus, while Khazar forces fought to preserve their independence and control of the northern trade routes. Neither side achieved a permanent victory. Instead, decades of conflict established the Khazars as a major military power capable of resisting one of the most formidable empires of the age.  At the same time, commerce flourished. Caravans carrying silk from Asia, silver from the Islamic world, and furs from the forests of the north moved through Khazar territory in increasing numbers. The Khazars recognized that prosperity came not only from conquest but from controlling the movement of goods. Their rulers collected tolls, customs duties, and transit fees from merchants traveling between continents. By the end of the eighth century, the kingdom had become one of the wealthiest powers of the Eurasian steppe.   740–850 AD — The Jewish Kingdom of the Steppe As Khazar wealth and influence reached their peak, the ruling elite made one of the most unusual decisions in medieval history by adopting Judaism. Surrounded by Christian Byzantium and powerful Muslim Caliphates, the Khazars occupied a delicate geopolitical position. Conversion to Christianity might have increased Byzantine influence over the kingdom. Conversion to Islam might have drawn the Khazars into the orbit of the Caliphates. Judaism offered a third path.  Exactly how many Khazars converted remains debated, but most historians agree that the royal court and segments of the ruling elite embraced Judaism during this period. Figures such as Bulan, Obadiah, and Joseph appear in later traditions and correspondence associated with the kingdom. Their decision transformed the Khazars into a unique state situated between two great religious civilizations while belonging fully to neither.  At the same time, the capital city of Atil emerged as one of the great commercial centers of Eurasia. Situated near the Volga delta, it connected the northern forests of Europe with the Islamic world and Central Asia. Contemporary accounts describe a bustling city filled with merchants, warehouses, markets, and ships. Jews, Christians, Muslims, and followers of older pagan traditions lived and traded within the same commercial environment. For a brief period, Atil stood at the center of a vast network linking Scandinavia, Byzantium, Persia, and the steppes.    850–950 AD — Wealth, Diversity, and Gathering Storms By the ninth century, the Khazar Empire had become a sophisticated trading state whose wealth depended upon stability and commerce. Unlike many kingdoms that relied primarily upon agriculture, the Khazars prospered through their control of rivers, caravan routes, and strategic choke points. Goods arriving from every direction passed through their territory. Furs, honey, wax, timber, and amber arrived from the north. Silk, spices, and precious stones came from Asia. Silver, luxury goods, and coins flowed from the Islamic world. Horses, livestock, and slaves moved across the steppe in enormous numbers.  The kingdom's political system reflected its unusual character. At its apex stood the Khagan, a sacred ruler whose authority carried religious significance. Day-to-day power, however, rested with the Bek, who directed military affairs, diplomacy, and administration. This dual structure allowed the Khazars to combine ceremonial legitimacy with practical governance.  Yet beneath the prosperity, challenges were emerging. Viking merchants increasingly traveled southward along the rivers of Eastern Europe, linking Scandinavia with the Islamic world. New powers arose along those same waterways. Among them were the Rus principalities, whose leaders increasingly recognized the enormous wealth generated by the trade routes flowing through Khazar territory. At the same time, nomadic groups such as the Pechenegs applied pressure along the empire's borders. The foundations of Khazar power remained strong, but the first cracks had begun to appear.    900–965 AD — Vikings, Rus, and the Changing World During the tenth century, the commercial networks that had enriched the Khazars for generations became increasingly contested. Scandinavian traders, adventurers, and settlers traveled southward through the rivers of Eastern Europe, carrying goods between the Baltic and the Islamic world. Many Viking silver hoards discovered in Scandinavia originated from trade routes that passed through Khazar territory.  The rise of the Rus altered the balance of power. Centered around river systems that connected northern Europe to Byzantium, the Rus gradually expanded their influence over trade routes previously dominated by the Khazars. What had once been a partnership of convenience increasingly became a rivalry.  At the same time, traditional steppe pressures continued. Nomadic groups competed for territory and resources. Trade routes shifted. Political alliances changed. The kingdom remained wealthy, but its monopoly over commerce was weakening. Rivals no longer wished merely to trade through Khazar lands. They wanted control of the routes themselves.   965–969 AD — The Fall of the Khazar Empire  The decisive blow came from the north. Under the leadership of Sviatoslav I of Kyiv, the Rus launched a series of campaigns aimed at dismantling Khazar power and capturing the commercial networks that had enriched the kingdom for centuries.  Rus armies attacked key Khazar strongholds, including Sarkel and Atil. One by one, the empire's major centers fell. Cities that had once served as hubs of international commerce were devastated. Trade routes shifted. Political authority collapsed. Within only a few years, the Khazar Empire ceased to function as a major regional power.  The destruction was swift, but its consequences were lasting. The roads remained. The rivers continued to flow. Merchants still traveled between continents. Yet the kingdom that had once controlled these movements disappeared from the political map.   After 969 AD — The Disappearance of the Khazars  The fate of the Khazars after the fall of their empire remains one of the enduring mysteries of medieval history. Unlike ruling dynasties such as the Romanovs or Habsburgs, no clearly traceable Khazar lineage survives into the modern era. Most historians believe the population gradually merged into neighboring peoples, including Slavic, Turkic, Caucasian, and Crimean communities.  Over generations, the Khazar language disappeared. Their political institutions vanished. Their separate identity faded from the historical record. Yet traces of their influence remained embedded within the trade networks, cultures, and populations that succeeded them.  What survived was not the kingdom itself, but the memory of a remarkable state that had stood between Christianity and Islam, connected Europe with Asia, enriched itself through commerce rather than conquest, and adopted Judaism while occupying one of the most strategic locations on Earth. For roughly three centuries, the Khazars controlled one of the richest crossroads in the medieval world before passing into history as one of its most fascinating disappearances.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-32" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-32" data-testid= "conversation-turn-66" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The Powers of the Eurasian Crossroads c. 700 BC–300 AD — The Scythians The Scythians were among the first great horse cultures to dominate the grasslands north of the Black Sea. Famous for their cavalry, archery, and long-distance trade, they controlled routes linking the Greek colonies of the Black Sea with the interior of Eurasia. Their wealth came from their ability to move across vast distances and control commerce between settled civilizations and the open steppe. c. 300 BC–400 AD — The Sarmatians As Scythian power declined, the Sarmatians emerged as the dominant force across much of the same territory. They inherited many of the trade routes and military traditions of their predecessors while maintaining connections with Rome, Persia, and numerous tribal confederations throughout Eastern Europe. c. 370–500 AD — The Huns The arrival of the Huns transformed the political landscape of Europe and Asia. Under leaders such as Attila the Hun, they built a vast empire stretching across the steppe. Their rapid expansion disrupted older kingdoms, triggered migrations, and reshaped the balance of power across Europe. c. 550–650 AD — The Göktürks Following the decline of the Huns and other steppe confederations, the Göktürks established one of the first major Turkic empires. They controlled important segments of the Silk Road and connected East Asia with the western steppe. The political traditions, military structures, and trade networks they developed would heavily influence the Khazars who followed. c. 650–969 AD — The Khazars Emerging from the collapse of the Göktürk world, the Khazars established a wealthy kingdom between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. They became masters of trade, controlling routes that linked Scandinavia, Byzantium, Central Asia, and the Islamic world. Their ruling elite famously adopted Judaism, making them one of the most unusual states of the medieval era. For roughly three centuries they served as a commercial and military bridge between civilizations. c. 900–1240 AD — Kievan Rus, Pechenegs, and Cumans As Khazar power declined, new rivals emerged. The Kievan Rus expanded along the river systems of Eastern Europe and increasingly controlled the trade routes that had enriched the Khazars. At the same time, Turkic nomadic peoples such as the Pechenegs and later the Cumans occupied large portions of the steppe. Together these powers inherited much of the territory and influence once held by the Khazar kingdom. c. 1240–1502 AD — The Golden Horde The Mongol invasions transformed Eurasia. Following the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors, the Golden Horde emerged as the dominant power across the western steppe. Like the Khazars before them, the Mongols profited enormously from controlling trade routes that linked Europe and Asia, though on an even larger scale. c. 1441–1783 AD — The Crimean Khanate After the fragmentation of Mongol authority, the Crimean Khanate became a major regional power. Centered in Crimea, it controlled important trade routes, maintained strong ties to the Ottoman Empire, and played a central role in the politics of Eastern Europe and the Black Sea region for centuries. c. 1453–1900s AD — Ottoman Influence in the Black Sea The Ottoman Empire gradually became the dominant power around the Black Sea. Through its control of ports, naval routes, and regional commerce, the Ottoman Empire inherited many of the strategic advantages that earlier powers had sought in the same region. c. 1721–1917 AD — The Russian Empire By the eighteenth century, the Russian Empire had expanded southward into many of the lands once controlled by the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Khazars, Mongols, and Crimean Tatars. Russia became the latest great power to dominate the Eurasian crossroads, controlling the rivers, ports, and trade corridors that had attracted empires for more than two thousand years. The story of the Khazars is therefore part of a much larger story. For nearly 2,500 years, different peoples rose and fell across the same strategic landscape. Empires changed, languages changed, religions changed, but the geography remained the same. Whoever controlled the corridor between the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Eurasian steppe gained access to one of the most valuable crossroads in world history. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1000–1200 — Romani Migration Appears in Historical Records Migration from India gradually becomes visible in European records. 1020 — Habsburg Castle Built The castle from which the Habsburg family takes its name. 1054 — Great Schism Formal split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Shapes later divisions between Western Europe, Byzantium, Russia, and the Balkans. 1095–1291 — Crusades Series of military campaigns between European Christian powers and Muslim states. Major movement of people, trade, military orders, and wealth. 1096 — First Crusade Devastates Rhine Jewish Communities Jewish communities in Mainz, Worms, and Speyer suffer massacres and persecution during the First Crusade. 1204 — Fourth Crusade Sacks Constantinople Crusaders capture and sack Constantinople. Weakens the Byzantine Empire. Deepens the divide between Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Christianity. 1215 — Magna Carta Often cited as a foundation of constitutional government and English legal traditions. 1219 — Nuremberg Receives Imperial Charter Nuremberg becomes an important Imperial Free City within the Holy Roman Empire. Develops into a major center of trade, administration, and political activity. 1241–1242 — Mongol Invasion of Europe Mongol armies devastate parts of Poland and Hungary before withdrawing. One of the largest military incursions into medieval Europe. 1273 — First Habsburg King of Germany Rudolf I becomes King of Germany. Marks the beginning of the Habsburg rise as a major European dynasty. 1278 — Habsburg Control of Austria Begins After the Battle of Marchfeld. Establishes the foundation of centuries of Habsburg rule in Austria. 1291 — Swiss Confederation Traditionally Founded Alliance of Alpine communities forms the basis of the future Swiss Confederation. Later becomes associated with resistance to Habsburg expansion. 1309–1377 — Avignon Papacy Popes reside in Avignon rather than Rome. Period sometimes referred to as the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy. 1347–1353 — Black Death Kills an estimated 30–50% of Europe's population. Labor shortages, social upheaval, and religious tensions reshape Europe. Jewish communities are falsely accused of poisoning wells, leading to massacres, expulsions, and persecution. The plague kills between one-third and one-half of Europe's population. German-speaking regions are devastated but recover unevenly. Jewish communities are accused of "poisoning wells," leading to pogroms, expulsions, and mass killings. Survivors migrate and cluster in safer regions, especially trade cities and tolerant areas. "These migrations helped reshape the geographic distribution of Ashkenazi Jewish communities, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, where large populations later developed." The Plague Arrives  Between 1347 and 1352, the Black Death killed 30–50% of Europe. People had no understanding of germs, rats, fleas, or contagion. Medicine couldn't explain it. The Church couldn't stop it. Kings were powerless. When people don't understand a disaster, they look for someone to blame.   Why Jews Were Targeted  Europe already had a long history of antisemitism, and Jews lived in tight, separate communities due to segregation laws. This made them "different," which made them easy scapegoats. Specific Reasons Jews Were Blamed:   They washed more frequently (for religious reasons), which made their infection rates lower in some areas. To terrified Europeans, this looked suspicious.   Jewish communities used wells that Christians didn't use. This allowed the rumor "they poisoned the water" to spread.   Economic resentment, some Jews had roles in finance or trade; people in crisis targeted them.   Stories spread faster than facts. There was no science, no newspapers, no sanitation, and knowledge only fear.   The Well Poisoning Myth  A rumor began circulating in 1348: "The Jews have poisoned the wells to kill Christians." There was no evidence, but panic spreads faster than truth.  This led to mass arrests, torture-based "confessions," executions, entire communities being burned alive, destruction of property, expulsions from towns and regions. This was one of the largest waves of antisemitic violence in medieval history.   What Authorities Did  In a few places, leaders tried to stop the violence. The Pope (Clement VI) issued two official statements saying Jews were not responsible and begged people to stop killing them. Some kings tried to protect Jewish subjects. But in many cities, local rulers looked the other way or joined the attacks.    Why Understanding This Matters  The Black Death is one of history's clearest examples of how fear turns into false accusations, how minorities become scapegoats during crises, how dangerous misinformation becomes when people are desperate, and how societies invent explanations when they lack science. It shows how easily people will attack the wrong target when they face something they don't understand.   During the Black Death, terrified Europeans didn't know what caused the plague. Without science, they turned to myth. One of the worst false beliefs was that Jews had poisoned the wells. This rumor spread across the continent and led to massacres, expulsions, and the destruction of entire Jewish communities, even though there was zero evidence, and the real cause was fleas on rats. It remains one of the darkest chapters of medieval panic and scapegoating.   1356 — Golden Bull Issued by Emperor Charles IV. Defines the process for electing Holy Roman Emperors. One of the most important constitutional documents in Holy Roman Empire history. 1378–1417 — Western Schism Multiple rival popes claim authority. 1384–1477 — Burgundian Expansion into the Low Countries The Duchy of Burgundy absorbs much of the Low Countries, beginning their gradual separation from the German political sphere. 1400s 1400s–1500s — Early Prussian Territories Form The lands of the Teutonic Order gradually evolve into the political foundation of Prussia. German-speaking populations expand eastward into Central and Eastern Europe. 1417 — First Documented Romani Presence in Central Europe 1438 — Habsburg Era of the Holy Roman Empire Begins The Habsburg dynasty begins its long dominance of the imperial throne. 1450–1600 — Age of Exploration Portugal and Spain lead European maritime expansion. 1498 — Vasco da Gama reaches India. 1519–1522 — Magellan expedition circumnavigates the globe. 1450 — Johannes Gutenberg Introduces the Printing Press Movable-type printing transforms the spread of information. 1453 — Fall of Constantinople The Ottoman Empire conquers Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. Trade routes between Europe and Asia increasingly pass through Ottoman-controlled territories. 1455 Onward — Mass Printing of the Bible The Gutenberg Bible helps accelerate literacy, religious debate, and the spread of ideas. 1469 — Ferdinand and Isabella Marry Unites the crowns of Castile and Aragon. Lays the foundation for a unified Spanish kingdom. 1477–1556 — Habsburg Control of Burgundy and the Low Countries The Habsburgs inherit the Burgundian Netherlands through marriage, creating a vast multinational dynasty stretching across Europe. 1492 — One of the Most Important Years in World History January 2, 1492 — Granada Falls The last Muslim kingdom in Spain is conquered. March 31, 1492 — Alhambra Decree Spain orders Jews to convert or leave. August 3, 1492 — Columbus Sails West August 1492 — Sephardic Jewish Exodus Begins Large numbers of Jews leave Spain for: Ottoman Empire North Africa Italy Portugal Netherlands October 12, 1492 — Columbus Reaches the Americas 1497 — Portugal Expels or Forcibly Converts Jews Additional waves of Sephardic migration spread across the Mediterranean and Europe. 1499 — Restrictions on Romani Populations Begin in Spain Authorities attempt to force settlement, labor control, and cultural assimilation. 1500s   1500s — Ottoman Jewish Commercial Networks Expand Major Jewish communities flourish in:  Constantinople  Salonica  Aleppo  Cairo  Baghdad  Trade, family, and religious networks connect communities across the Mediterranean, Middle East, Balkans, and North Africa.  1500–1502 — Forced Conversions of Muslims in Spain The Spanish Crown increases pressure on religious minorities to conform.  1516–1517 — Ottoman Conquest of the Arab World Ottoman forces take Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Jerusalem, and Cairo, creating one of the largest empires of the era.  1516 — Venetian Ghetto Established Often regarded as the first formal Jewish ghetto in Europe.  1517 — Protestant Reformation Begins Martin Luther publishes the Ninety-Five Theses. Religious unity in Western Europe fractures.  1519 — Charles V Becomes Holy Roman Emperor The Habsburg Empire reaches its greatest extent.  c. 1524 — First Recorded European Exploration of New York Harbor Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano sails into New York Harbor while exploring for France. 1609 — Henry Hudson Explores the Hudson River Henry Hudson explores the river that later bears his name while sailing for the Dutch. The voyage helps establish Dutch claims in the region. 1624 — New Netherland Established The Dutch establish a permanent colony in the Hudson River region. The colony becomes an important center for trade and commerce. 1625–1626 — New Amsterdam Founded The Dutch establish New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. The settlement becomes the center of Dutch North America. 1664 — English Seize New Amsterdam English forces take control of New Amsterdam without major fighting. The colony is renamed New York after the Duke of York. 1689–1691 — Leisler's Rebellion One of colonial America's earliest political uprisings occurs in New York. The rebellion reflects tensions over governance, trade, and loyalty to the English Crown. 1735 — John Peter Zenger Trial A landmark press-freedom case takes place in New York. The acquittal of printer John Peter Zenger becomes an important precedent for freedom of the press. 1785–1790 — New York Serves as U.S. Capital New York becomes the first capital under the U.S. Constitution. 1789 — George Washington Inaugurated George Washington takes the oath of office at Federal Hall. 1825 — Erie Canal Opens The Erie Canal links the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. New York becomes the dominant commercial gateway of the United States. 1835 — Great Fire of New York A massive fire destroys hundreds of buildings in lower Manhattan. The city is rebuilt and expands rapidly. 1845 — Second Great New York Fire Another devastating fire strikes the growing city. 1855–1924 — Mass Immigration Through New York Millions of immigrants arrive through New York Harbor. The city becomes one of the world's largest immigrant gateways. 1883 — Brooklyn Bridge Opens The bridge permanently links Manhattan and Brooklyn. 1892 — Ellis Island Opens Ellis Island becomes the primary federal immigration station. More than 12 million immigrants will pass through its doors. 1898 — Greater New York Created Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island are consolidated into modern New York City. 1525 — Duchy of Prussia Created  1526 — Battle of Mohács Ottoman victory reshapes Central Europe. The Habsburgs acquire claims to Hungary and Bohemia.  1534 — Ottoman Capture of Baghdad Baghdad becomes integrated into the Ottoman Empire and remains an important Jewish and commercial center.  1534 — Church of England Founded King Henry VIII establishes the Church of England and breaks with papal authority.  1556 — Habsburg Dynasty Divides Spanish and Austrian Habsburg branches formally separate.  1568–1648 — Dutch Revolt The northern Netherlands gradually break away from Habsburg rule. A defining event in the formation of the Dutch Republic.  Late 1500s — Amsterdam Emerges as a Global Trading Center Merchants, refugees, financiers, printers, and religious minorities converge in the city. Sephardic Jewish communities become increasingly prominent.  1580s–1600s — Brownist Movement Emerges in England Religious separatists reject the authority of the Church of England.  1588 — Defeat of the Spanish Armada England defeats the Spanish Armada. Marks a turning point in the balance of power between Spain and England.  1600 — British East India Company Founded Chartered by Queen Elizabeth I. Established to conduct trade with Asia. Becomes one of the most powerful commercial organizations in history. Its influence eventually extends across: India China The Middle East Africa The company plays a major role in the growth of the British Empire. 1602 — Dutch East India Company (VOC) Established One of the first large multinational corporations. Amsterdam develops into a major financial and trading center. Dutch commercial networks expand into: Asia Africa The Middle East The Americas The Dutch Republic becomes one of the leading economic powers of the seventeenth century. 1607 — Jamestown Founded  -First permanent English settlement in North America. 1609 — Amsterdam Exchange Bank Established The city strengthens its reputation as one of Europe's leading financial centers. Merchants from across Europe increasingly rely on Amsterdam for trade, finance, currency exchange, and commercial credit. The Dutch Republic becomes one of the most influential commercial powers of the seventeenth century. 1618–1648 — Thirty Years' War One of the most destructive conflicts in European history. Fought across much of Central Europe. Religious, dynastic, and political rivalries become intertwined. Large regions of the Holy Roman Empire are devastated. Population losses in some German territories reach catastrophic levels. The conflict further weakens centralized imperial authority and accelerates the rise of regional states 1619–1865 — Chattel Slavery Millions of Africans and their descendants are held as property in the American colonies and later the United States. Included: Forced labor Family separation Physical punishment Sale of children Legal denial of basic rights 1620 — Plymouth Colony  -Pilgrims arrive aboard the Mayflower. Mayflower Compact  -Early self-government document. 1648 — Peace of Westphalia End of the Thirty Years' War. Often viewed as the birth of the modern state system. Major reduction in Holy Roman Empire authority. 1675–1678 — King Philip's War One of the deadliest wars per capita in American history. Major turning point in Native–colonial relations. 1683 — Siege of Vienna  -Ottoman advance into Central Europe halted. 1688 — Glorious Revolution King James II is deposed. William III and Mary II assume the English throne. Parliament gains greater authority. Helps shape the future development of constitutional monarchy in Britain. 1694 — Bank of England Founded Established to help finance the English government. Becomes one of the most influential financial institutions in world history. Strengthens London's role as a global financial center. 1700s   The Sassoon family becomes increasingly visible in Baghdad records.   The family emerges as a respected and influential Jewish family within the city.   1700–1900– Ashkenazi Jewish population grows dramatically in Eastern Europe.   1700s–1800s – British Empire  -Child migration, indenture, and transportation programs moved children from Britain and Ireland to colonies throughout the British Empire. Many experienced exploitation, forced labor, harsh conditions, neglect, and abuse. Some documented cases involved sexual abuse and exploitation. 1736 — Bellevue Almshouse Established Originally established as a public almshouse in New York City.  The institution housed: the poor the sick the elderly the disabled people considered socially undesirable Over time Bellevue expanded medical services and eventually became one of the earliest American institutions to house and treat the mentally ill.  Originally established as an almshouse on the East River.  At the time it held the poor, the sick, the mentally ill, and anyone the city wanted removed from public view. Bellevue created the first dedicated psychiatric ward in America, long before the country built its network of asylums. This happened nearly a century before Ellis Island and long before mass immigration waves the U.S. built mental confinement systems for its own population from day one.  1770 — Industrial Revolution Begins Steam power, mechanization, factories. One of the most important transformations in human history. 1770 — Jefferson's first personal library destroyed in a fire at Shadwell, Virginia. He rebuilt it, creating the much larger collection that Congress later purchased in 1815 1770 — Fire destroys much of Thomas Jefferson's library at Shadwell. 1814 — The Library of Congress is destroyed during the Burning of Washington. 1815 — Congress purchases Jefferson's library to replace it. 1772, 1793, 1795 — Partitions of Poland  -Poland disappears from the map. Divided by: Prussia Austria Russia 1776 — American Revolution The Thirteen Colonies declare independence from Britain. The United States begins forming its own political institutions, laws, and systems of government 1787 — U.S. Constitution Ratified  -The operating framework of the experiment itself. 1789 — French Revolution The French monarchy enters crisis. Ideas of citizenship, nationalism, secular government, and mass political participation spread across Europe. Many modern state systems trace their origins to this period 1790 — First U.S. Census  -Beginning of systematic national population records 1791 — First Bank of the United States  -Hamilton's national bank. May 17, 1792 — Buttonwood Agreement  -Twenty-four New York brokers sign the Buttonwood Agreement, creating the foundation of the New York Stock Exchange and the modern American securities market. David Sassoon is born in Baghdad.   He is born into:   A centuries-old Jewish community.    An Ottoman trading world already connected across continents.    Networks that had been demonstrated during the Zevi movement more than a century earlier.  1796–1820s — First mass vaccination campaigns   Edward Jenner develops smallpox vaccination (1796) Britain, Prussia, France adopt compulsory/semi-compulsory vaccination   1798 — Exposition des produits de l'industrie française Paris, France Often considered the first large national industrial exposition. Established during the French Revolutionary period to showcase French industry and manufacturing. New state tools:   Health registries   Compliance enforcement   Medical–police logic       *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1800s 1803 — Marbury v. Madison Establishes judicial review. The U.S. Supreme Court gains the power to strike down laws deemed unconstitutional. 1803 — Louisiana Purchase The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France. Doubles the size of the United States. Opens vast areas for westward expansion. 1804 — Haitian Revolution Completed The slave uprising in Haiti successfully overthrows French colonial rule. First successful large-scale slave revolt to establish an independent nation. Massive impact on slavery, colonialism, and migration throughout the Americas. 1804–1806 — Lewis and Clark Expedition First major exploration of the Louisiana Purchase. Maps western territories and establishes relations with numerous Native American nations. Provides valuable geographic and scientific information about the continent 1808–1865 — Domestic Slave Trade After the international slave trade is banned, a massive internal slave trade develops within the United States. Over one million enslaved people are forcibly relocated, often separating families permanently. 1811 — Battle of Tippecanoe Conflict between U.S. forces and Native confederation forces led by Tecumseh's movement. Important precursor to the War of 1812. 1812 — Grimm's Fairy Tales Published Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm publish the first volume of Children's and Household Tales (Kinder- und Hausmärchen). Helps preserve German folklore. Becomes one of the most influential collections of fairy tales in history. 1812–1815 — War of 1812 Conflict between the United States and Great Britain. Fought over trade restrictions, maritime disputes, and frontier conflicts. Strengthens American national identity after the war. August 24, 1814 — Burning of Washington During the War of 1812, British forces: Burn the U.S. Capitol and White House Destroy numerous federal buildings Force evacuation of the capital Disrupt government operations and records 1815 — Congress of Vienna Congress of Vienna redraws the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Habsburg influence is restored. A new European balance of power is established. The settlement shapes European politics until World War I. 1815–1816 — Volcanic Winter Mount Tambora Eruption erupts in present-day Indonesia. The following year becomes known as the "Year Without a Summer." Global temperatures decline approximately 0.4–0.7°C. Crop failures, famine, displacement, and food riots occur across multiple continents. 1816–1830 — First Modern Mass Migration Wave Rural populations move into growing cities throughout Europe. Emigration increases from German states, Switzerland, and Ireland. Settlement accelerates across North America. Industrialization and agricultural changes contribute to population movement. 1817–1828 — David Sassoon in Baghdad Administration David Sassoon serves in financial and administrative roles under the Ottoman governor of Baghdad. His position places him within the political and commercial structure of the Ottoman province. The experience helps him develop networks later used in Bombay. This period bridges the gap between his early life in Baghdad and his later commercial career in India. Pre-1820 — Limited Immigration Records Before the Steerage Act of 1820, most immigrants arrive without official passenger documentation. Many leave little trace of entry into North America. Genealogical research for this period is often difficult due to incomplete records. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1820 — Steerage Act The United States begins requiring passenger manifests for ships arriving from overseas. Federal immigration documentation becomes more systematic. Many earlier immigrants remain difficult to trace because records were incomplete or nonexistent. 1820–1971 — British Influence in Gulf State Formation Britain gradually establishes control over foreign relations and defense in several Gulf states. 1820 — General Maritime Treaty Beginning of formal British influence in the Persian Gulf. 1821 — Mexico Gains Independence Spain loses control of New Spain following the Mexican War of Independence. Mexico inherits vast territories including present-day: California Texas Arizona New Mexico Nevada Utah Parts of Colorado and Wyoming 1820s–1840s — First Major State Asylums Large psychiatric hospitals begin appearing throughout the United States. Examples include institutions in: Worcester Utica Trenton Dorothea Dix campaigns for a nationwide asylum system. By the 1850s, nearly every state has at least one large mental institution. The asylum movement becomes a major component of nineteenth-century social reform. 1823 — Monroe Doctrine United States declares opposition to new European colonization in the Americas. Becomes a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy. Russian Oil Timeline 1823 One of the world's earliest paraffin-refining operations established in Baku. 1846 One of the world's first mechanically drilled oil wells was completed at Bibi-Heybat near Baku (then part of the Russian Empire). 1872 The Russian government auctioned oil-bearing lands around Baku to private investors. This marked the beginning of large-scale capitalist oil development in the region. 1873 Robert Nobel arrived in Baku and purchased refinery interests. The Nobel family's oil empire began taking shape. 1877–1879 Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company (Branobel) was established. Became one of the largest oil companies in the world. 1883 The Rothschild family entered the Russian oil business through the Caspian-Black Sea Oil Company. Baku-Batumi rail connections expanded export capacity. 1898–1901 Baku briefly produced more oil than the United States. Around 1901, Baku accounted for roughly half of global oil production. 1906 Baku-Batum pipeline completed, linking Caspian oil to the Black Sea. 1914–1917 Major oil interests included Nobel Brothers, Shell, Rothschild-linked companies, and Russian banking groups. Oil was one of the most important industries in the Russian Empire. 1917 The Russian Revolution. Bolsheviks moved toward state control and eventual nationalization of major oil assets. 1920s–1991 Soviet state oil industry. Oil production remained a major pillar of the Soviet economy. 1991–Present Collapse of the Soviet Union. Russian oil industry reorganized into state and private companies, including entities such as Rosneft and Lukoil. 1824 — Lowell Canal System One of the first major American industrial water-power systems. Helped launch the factory age in New England. 1825 — Erie Canal Opens Connects the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via New York. Transforms trade, migration, and settlement patterns across the United States. 1829 — Metropolitan Police Established (London) Modern professional policing begins under Home Secretary Robert Peel. Many later police forces around the world adopt similar models. 1830 — Belgian Revolution Creates modern Belgium. Separates Belgium from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 1830 — Indian Removal Act Authorizes removal of Native American nations from southeastern United States. Leads to large-scale forced relocation and the Trail of Tears. 1831 — Nat Turner Rebellion One of the most significant slave uprisings in U.S. history. Triggers stricter slave laws across the South. 1832–1833 — Balloon Framing Introduced Balloon framing revolutionizes American home construction. Long continuous wall studs and mass-produced nails reduce costs and speed construction across the expanding United States. The method helps fuel rapid urban growth but is later criticized because wall cavities can act like chimneys during fires. 1835 — Great New York Fire Destroyed much of Lower Manhattan's business district. Financial records, insurance records, and commercial documents were lost. One of the worst urban fires in early U.S. history. 1837 — Telegraph Samuel Morse develops practical telegraph systems. Communication speeds increase dramatically across long distances. 1838–1839 — Trail of Tears Major U.S. population displacement event. Thousands of Cherokee and other Native Americans die during forced relocation. 1839–1842 — First Opium War Britain defeats Qing China after disputes over the opium trade. The resulting Treaty of Nanking opens Chinese ports to foreign commerce and transfers Hong Kong to British control. 1840s–1860s — Gynecological Experiments on Enslaved Women J. Marion Sims performs surgical experiments on enslaved Black women without modern standards of consent. Women frequently cited in historical accounts include: Anarcha Lucy Betsey Sims later becomes known as the "Father of Modern Gynecology." 1844 — First Practical Telegraph Message "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT" Sent between Washington and Baltimore. Marks the beginning of the modern telecommunications era. 1844 — American Psychiatric Association Founded as the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane. 1892 — Renamed the American Medico-Psychological Association. 1921 — Became the American Psychiatric Association. 1844 — Exposition of French Industrial Products Paris, France One of a series of increasingly large French industrial exhibitions that helped inspire later international fairs. 1845 — Manifest Destiny The belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America becomes a dominant political idea. Helps justify westward expansion, territorial acquisition, Native American displacement, and the Mexican-American War. Becomes one of the most influential concepts in nineteenth-century American history. 1845–1852 — Irish Famine Migration Over one million Irish immigrants arrive in the United States. Many arrive poor and undocumented. Names are frequently altered or inconsistently recorded, weakening long-term traceability. 1846–1848 — Mexican–American War The United States acquires large territories in the Southwest. Existing populations are absorbed with inconsistent land, legal, and identity records. 1848 — Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Ends the Mexican-American War. Massive territorial acquisition by the United States. 1848 — European Revolutions Revolutionary movements erupt across France, the German states, Austria, Hungary, and Italy. Many political refugees later emigrate to Britain and North America. The revolutions reveal growing tensions between monarchies, nationalism, and demands for political reform. 1848–1855 — California Gold Rush Triggers one of the largest migrations in American history. Hundreds of thousands move to California from the United States, Latin America, Europe, and Asia. 1851 — The Great Exhibition (London) First major world's fair. Showcases industrial, technological, and imperial power of the Victorian era. 1853 — Perpetual Maritime Truce Expands British oversight of regional maritime affairs in the Persian Gulf. 1854–1929 — Orphan Train Movement Approximately 200,000 children relocated from cities to rural families. Many were not orphans but were separated due to poverty or disease. Child removal becomes an institutional solution to social problems. 1856 — Nikola Tesla Born Nikola Tesla born in Smiljan, then part of the Austrian Empire (later Austro-Hungarian Empire), now in Croatia. 1858 — British Crown Takes Direct Control of India End of East India Company rule. India becomes governed directly by the British Crown 1859 — First Commercial Oil Well Edwin Drake drills the first successful commercial oil well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Often considered the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. 1861–1865 — American Civil War Railroads, telegraph systems, and mass conscription transform warfare. Approximately 620,000 deaths. Permanent expansion of federal power, records systems, veterans' institutions, asylums, and poorhouses. 1862 — Homestead Act One of the most important land redistribution programs in U.S. history. Encourages western settlement. 1864 — Circassian Genocide Final Circassian resistance crushed near Sochi. Approximately 90% expelled to the Ottoman Empire. One of the largest ethnic expulsions of the nineteenth century April 14–15, 1865 — Assassination of Abraham Lincoln President Abraham Lincoln is shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., and dies the following morning. The first assassination of a U.S. president, it occurs just days after the end of major Civil War fighting and profoundly influences the course of Reconstruction and post-war American history. 1865–1877 — Black Codes Southern states enact laws restricting the freedom of formerly enslaved people. Limitations include: Employment Movement Property rights Civil rights 1866–1867 — Dynamite Developed and Patented Alfred Nobel develops a practical method of stabilizing nitroglycerin. 1867 — Dynamite patented in the United Kingdom 1866–1940s — Convict Leasing Southern states lease prisoners to private companies. Black Americans are disproportionately affected. Conditions are often described by historians as harsher than slavery. 1867 — Alaska Purchase Major territorial expansion of the United States. Purchased from Russia. 1869 — First Transcontinental Railroad Completed Links eastern and western United States by rail. Accelerates migration, commerce, communication, and settlement. 1869–1880s — Railroads Transform Society Railroads dramatically increase movement of: People Mail Goods Newspapers Government records Creating the first truly national transportation network in U.S. history. The United States becomes increasingly connected by transportation and communication networks. Cities such as Chicago emerge as major national transportation hubs 1870s–1900 — Political Corruption and Machine Politics Political machines control many major cities. Most famous: Tammany Hall (New York) Led by William M. Tweed ("Boss Tweed"). Included: Bribery Election fraud Kickbacks Government contract theft 1870 — Standard Oil Founded John D. Rockefeller founds Standard Oil in Ohio. Becomes the dominant oil company in the United States. 1870– 15th Amendment Voting rights. Global telegraph networks expand rapidly. Communication that once required weeks or months can increasingly move across continents in hours or days. Governments, businesses, banks, newspapers, and commercial networks become more interconnected than ever before. International news agencies expand their reach. Events occurring on one continent can increasingly be reported on another within days rather than weeks. Governments, banks, newspapers, and commercial firms become dependent on rapid information flow. During the 1870s–1880s, Orphan Train placements scaled into:   Ohio    Indiana    Illinois    Missouri    Kansas    Nebraska    …and further west over time.    1870 — First U.S. Census to Record Formerly Enslaved People by Name One of the most important genealogy milestones in American history. Prior censuses generally listed enslaved people only as numbers under slaveholders. For millions of Black Americans, 1870 is the first federal record identifying ancestors by name.   October 8, 1871. One night, multiple catastrophic fires ignited simultaneously across the Great Lakes region. The Great Chicago Fire destroyed 2,100 acres, leveled 17,400 buildings, and left 70,000 people homeless. That same night, 200 miles north, the Peshtigo fire in Wisconsin consumed 1.2 million acres and took between 1,500 and 2,500 lives, making it the single most devastating wildfire in recorded American history.   Simultaneously, fires destroyed Holland, Michigan; Manistee, Michigan; and Port Huron, Michigan. Thirty-seven individual fire areas across three states, all on the same night. The official explanation is drought conditions and careless land-clearing practices that happened to ignite at the same time across hundreds of miles.   1871 – Great Fire of Chicago  -A major urban disaster that destroys homes, businesses, and records.    Vital Records (Birth, Death, Marriage) Many birth and death records prior to 1871 were lost   Early marriage records partially destroyed    Important note:  Illinois did not have a strong statewide vital records system yet, so many records existed only locally—and were wiped out.    City Government Records    Tax records   Licensing records   Permits and municipal documents    Tracking residency, business ownership, and civic identity became much harder.    What the 1871 Fire Actually Did    Burned the central business district where many records were stored (courts, city offices, newspapers, banks)   Destroyed single-copy records—there were rarely backups or statewide duplicates   Forced rapid rebuilding and re-documentation (people re-proved ownership, remarried in records, refiled claims)    Church Records    Baptismal, marriage, and burial records from multiple churches destroyed. These were often the only records of:   Immigrants   Children   Poor families     Newspaper Archives    Offices of major newspapers burned (e.g., Chicago Tribune)   Most back issues and archives destroyed    Loss of:    Obituaries   Public notices   Community records     Business and Personal Records    Bank records   Employment records   Private ledgers and correspondence    For many individuals, this erased:    Work history   Financial identity   Proof of residence   Scale of Destruction    ~3.3 square miles destroyed   ~17,000 buildings lost   ~100,000 people left homeless   Most records located in the central business district were completely wiped out    What Survived (Partially)    Some records stored outside the burn zone   State or federal duplicates (rare)   Reconstructed records created after the fire   The Chicago fire didn't just destroy buildings—it erased local identity infrastructure:    No centralized backups   No standardized duplication   Heavy reliance on single-location record storage    For many families in Chicago, pre-1871 documentation is incomplete or permanently lost    City Government Records    Tax records   Licensing records   Permits and municipal documents    Impact:  Tracking residency, business ownership, and civic identity became much harder.      1871 – Peshtigo Fire (Wisconsin)   Occurred the same night as the Chicago fire.   Deadliest wildfire in U.S. history, with roughly 1,200 or more deaths.   Entire communities are wiped out.   Local records are completely destroyed.   1872 — Crédit Mobilier Scandal One of the largest corruption scandals in U.S. history. Railroad insiders create a construction company to overcharge the federal government. Members of Congress receive stock and payments. Exposes widespread political corruption. 1872 – Great Boston Fire   Destroyed Boston's commercial district.   Financial, legal, and business records were lost.   Major insurance and property documentation was affected.   1872–1890 Chicago rebuilds at extraordinary speed. Railroads, meatpacking, manufacturing, grain trading, and finance expand rapidly. The city becomes one of the fastest-growing urban centers in the world. Millions of immigrants pass through or settle in the region during the following decades 1873 — Panic of 1873 Major global financial crisis. Triggers a prolonged economic depression in the United States and Europe. Bank failures, railroad collapses, unemployment, and migration increase. 1873–1900 — Railroad Monopolies and Land Scandals Railroads receive enormous federal land grants. Accusations include: Bribery Price fixing Political influence Fraudulent land deals Railroads become some of the most powerful corporations in the country. 1874 – Second Chicago Fire   Smaller than the 1871 fire but still significant.   Re-damaged rebuilding areas and records.  1874 — Freedman's Bank Records Preserved The records of the Freedman's Savings Bank contain family information for tens of thousands of formerly enslaved people. Often considered one of the richest genealogical sources for African American families. 1875 to ~1890  During this period:   The Children's Aid Society was running regular outbound placements The New York Foundling Hospital expanded operations in parallel Western/Midwestern demand for child labor + adoption was strong     Frequency of trains   Trains were frequent but not strictly monthly on a fixed calendar Some routes saw multiple trips per month during heavy periods Other times there were gaps depending on:    funding    demand from receiving towns    seasonal conditions (winter slowed movement)    1876 —Telephone  -Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone 1876 — Battle of Little Bighorn Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho forces defeat U.S. Army troops under George Armstrong Custer. One of the most famous battles of the American Indian Wars. 1877–1900 — Labor Violence Major conflicts between industrial workers and corporations. Examples: 1877 — Great Railroad Strike 1892 — Homestead Strike 1894 — Pullman Strike Private security forces, state militias, and federal troops are used against workers 1877–1965 — Jim Crow Era Legal segregation spreads throughout the South. Separate systems develop for: Schools Transportation Housing Voting Public accommodations 1878 — First Motion Picture Experiment  -Eadweard Muybridge creates The Horse in Motion, demonstrating sequential photographs that produce the illusion of movement 1879 — Thomas Edison Demonstrates Practical Incandescent Lighting Thomas Edison demonstrates a commercially practical incandescent lamp. Electric lighting begins transforming cities and industry 1880s–1900 — Child Labor Millions of children work in: Mines Factories Textile mills Agriculture Often under dangerous conditions. One of the most significant labor issues of the era. 1880s–1960s — Lynching Era Thousands of African Americans are murdered by mobs. Lynchings are often public events. Many perpetrators are never prosecuted. 1880s–1900 — Company Towns and Industrial Exploitation Large corporations control: Housing Stores Employment Workers often paid in company scrip rather than cash. Creates economic dependence on employers. 1880–1924– Large-scale Ashkenazi immigration to the United States.   Jewish communities in the Rhine region of Germany become known as Ashkenazim, taking their name from the biblical figure Ashkenaz. These communities later become the ancestors of most Eastern European and American Ashkenazi Jews.  Many people assume "Ashkenazi" means Poland or Russia, when historically the term originally pointed to the German-speaking lands of the medieval Holy Roman Empire.  1880's — Thomas Alva Edison developed electrical power systems based on direct current (DC) technologies. Chicago emerges as one of the nation's largest railroad centers. The city becomes a major hub for: Agriculture Meatpacking Manufacturing Immigration Financial activity Its influence increasingly extends far beyond the Midwest. 1880s – 1900: German Consolidation   Kaiser Wilhelm II (Germany) — grandson of Queen Victoria. → Britain and Germany now ruled by first cousins. Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Austria) marries Sophie Chotek, 1900. → Habsburg succession becomes fragile, fueling instability. Industrial wealth rises; royal finance shifts to London banks (Rothschild, Baring, Hambro).  → Economic gravity tilts westward.   Modern communications accelerate globalization:  Railroads  Steamships  Telegraphs  International banking  Jewish communities are documented throughout:  Russia  Germany  Austria-Hungary  Britain  France  Ottoman Empire  United States  Mass immigration to the United States accelerates. Large numbers of newcomers arrive from: Germany Russia Austria-Hungary Italy Eastern Europe The Ottoman Empire, Chicago, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and other industrial cities expand rapidly. Many immigrant families appear in American records for the first time during this period. 1880s and 1890s–  Tesla worked with radio-frequency electromagnetic waves. Despite the claims made by Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937), it was actually Tesla who did much of the most basic pioneering work in radio frequency technology By 1880:  Dozens of state asylums already existed.  Institutional populations were exploding.  The logic of confinement was routine government policy.  Eugenics researchers had easy access to institutionalized populations.  So when immigration later surged, the U.S. didn't need to create an institutional system — it simply expanded the one it already had.  1880s–1900s — Reclamation Movement  -Growing federal interest in irrigating the American West 1881 — American Red Cross Founded Clara Barton establishes the American Red Cross. Disaster relief becomes increasingly organized 1882 — Standard Oil Trust Created Standard Oil consolidates dozens of companies into a single trust. 1882 to 1892 – The decade immediately following those fires, was the peak decade of orphan train placements. The fires created massive displacement. Entire communities vanished. Local records burned. Population records, birth certificates, property deeds, church registries, all consumed. And into that void, children with no traceable origins flooded the system by the thousands. 1882 — Chinese Exclusion Act  -First major federal law restricting immigration by ethnicity. 1882 — First modern electric power station   Pearl Street Station, NYC (Edison)   Centralized electricity; night becomes productive   Tesla was employed with Continental Edison in Paris, France 1882–1903 — First Aliyah Large numbers of Jews from the Russian Empire and Eastern Europe migrate to Ottoman Palestine. Driven by pogroms, discrimination, and emerging Zionist movements. 1883 — Pendleton Civil Service Act  -Creates the modern professional federal bureaucracy. 1883 — Eugenics Coined  -Francis Galton introduces the term. United States  1904 — The Eugenics Record Office movement begins taking shape through research programs.   1910 — Eugenics Record Office opens in New York.   1907 — Indiana passes the world's first compulsory sterilization law.   1924 — Immigration Act restricts immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.   1927 — Buck v. Bell upholds forced sterilization laws. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. writes the decision.   1930s — Eugenics reaches peak influence in the United States.   1945 — After the defeat of Nazi Germany, public support rapidly declines.   1960s–1970s — Most state sterilization programs end.   1979 — Last known state-sanctioned sterilization program formally closes in many historical accounts (North Carolina's program continued into the 1970s) 1884–1885 — Berlin Conference  -European powers divide Africa. Important because: Colonial empires expand dramatically. Connects to migration and later world wars. 1884–  Tesla migrated to New York. He continued his employment with Edison's organization. Tesla was an electrical engineering genius, and inventor. Tesla and Edison became fierce competitors. He continued his employment with Edison's organization. Tesla was an electrical engineering genius, and inventor. Tesla and Edison became fierce competitors. 1885–  George Westinghouse, head of Westinghouse Electric Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, bought the patent rights to Tesla's polyphase system of alternating current dynamos, transformers, and motors. By the turn of the century, the State of New York electrical power system was based on Tesla's AC 1885 — First Successful Modern Skyscraper The Home Insurance Building in Chicago is completed. Often considered the world's first skyscraper. Steel-frame construction changes urban architecture 1886– Tesla opened his own laboratory in New York. Tesla invented and perfected the alternating current (AC) electrical system. Tesla acquired 45 U.S. patents in electrical alternating currents. Tesla invented the incandescent bulb, which Edison took full credit for 1886 — Statue of Liberty Dedicated -Haymarket Affair  -Major labor conflict 1886 — Coca-Cola Introduced The Coca-Cola Company origins begin in Atlanta. Becomes one of the world's most recognized consumer brands 1888 — Jack the Ripper Murders Series of murders in London's Whitechapel district. One of history's most famous unsolved criminal cases. 1889 — Oklahoma Land Run 1889 – Seattle Great Fire   Entire downtown destroyed.   Municipal and business records lost.   The city was rebuilt almost entirely from scratch 1890 — Sherman Antitrust Act First major U.S. law targeting monopolies and trusts. Later used against Standard Oil. 1890 – U.S. Census (Critical Link)   The most detailed census of its time, capturing the post-Civil War generation and linking earlier and later identities.    Most of the 1890 U.S. Census was destroyed in a 1921 fire at the Commerce Department building in Washington, D.C. The loss removed a crucial bridge between: The Civil War generation The great immigration era The early twentieth century For genealogists and historians, it remains one of the largest record losses in American history.   The 1890 census was the most detailed population survey the United States had ever conducted. For the first time, each family received its own dedicated form. It collected information on immigration status, naturalization, English-language proficiency, home ownership, race, household composition, and the relationship of every individual to the head of household. It captured a nation of 63 million people during the exact peak of the orphan train era. The highest placement rates occurred between 1882 and 1892. Nearly half of all children sent to Minnesota alone arrived in that single decade. The 1890 census would have documented precisely where these children were living, who they were living with, and whether their stated origins matched any verifiable immigration record. Most surviving 1890 census records are destroyed in a fire at the Commerce Department Building in Washington.  The loss removes one of the most important links between: The Civil War era The great immigration period The twentieth century The destruction becomes one of the greatest record losses in American history. After the peak Orphan Trains  (1890s–1920s)   Still active, but:    more regulated    more scrutiny    gradual decline in large group transports   1890 — Wounded Knee Massacre U.S. troops kill hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children. Often viewed as the symbolic end of the American Indian Wars 1890 — Sherman Antitrust Act First major federal law aimed at limiting monopolies and trusts. Foundation of later antitrust enforcement. 1890s — Lynching Era Intensifies Mob violence against African Americans becomes widespread. Thousands are killed. Perpetrators are rarely prosecuted. 1892 — Ellis Island Opens 1892 — Homestead Strike  -Labor versus industrial capital 1892–1900 — Robber Baron Era Industrial fortunes accumulate around figures such as: John D. Rockefeller Andrew Carnegie J. P. Morgan Critics accuse corporations of: Monopoly practices Labor exploitation Political influence Market manipulation 1893 — Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom A group of American and European businessmen, supported by U.S. interests in Hawaii, overthrow the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani. U.S. Minister John Stevens and U.S. Marines play a controversial role during the crisis. The monarchy is removed from power. 1893 — Thermite Hans Goldschmidt develops the thermite process.   1895 — Goldschmidt patents the thermite reaction.   1898 — Commercial use begins for welding railroad rails and industrial metalwork.   1894 — Pullman Strike Major national railroad labor conflict. Federal intervention expands government's role in labor disputes. 1895— X-rays Discovered  -By Wilhelm Röntgen 1895 — First Commercial Movie Screening  -The Lumière brothers present the first paid public motion-picture exhibition in Paris, marking the birth of the modern film industry Between 1896 and 1943  -Premature infants were displayed in glass incubators as public attractions. A man named Martin Cooney, who may not have been a real doctor, who changed his name at least once, who lied about his birthplace, operated what he called the Infantorium at Coney Island's Luna Park and at World's Fairs in Omaha, Buffalo, Chicago, and New York. Signs outside read: Babies in Incubators.   Visitors paid 25 cents to view rows of tiny infants behind glass. Cooney claimed to have treated over 6,500 premature babies. The names of the infants were kept anonymous. Hospitals at the time refused to treat premature babies at all, calling them weaklings unfit to survive. Eugenics exhibits ran at the same fairs where Cooney displayed his incubators.   Where did thousands of anonymous premature infants come from? Who were their parents? Why was there such an endless supply of them across decades of exhibitions? And why does nobody ask?   1896 — Klondike Gold Rush Major migration into Alaska and the Yukon. One of the largest gold rushes in North American history 1896 — Plessy v. Ferguson The U.S. Supreme Court upholds racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." Provides legal support for Jim Crow laws. 1897— the War Department owned Plum Island (then called Fort Terry) 1897 — Oil Discovered on Osage Reservation Oil is discovered beneath lands belonging to the Osage Nation in Oklahoma. The Osage had negotiated ownership of mineral rights when their reservation was established. As oil production expanded, many Osage became extraordinarily wealthy. By the early 1920s, some Osage families were among the richest people per capita in the world. 1898— Spanish-American War  -Marks emergence of the U.S. as a global empire. 1898–1934 — Banana Wars  -A series of U.S. military interventions, occupations, and political actions in: Cuba Panama Nicaragua Haiti Dominican Republic Honduras Mexico The interventions were often justified as protecting American interests, maintaining regional stability, safeguarding the Panama Canal, and protecting U.S. businesses such as the United Fruit Company. 1898 — Annexation of Hawaii 1899–1902 — Second Boer War British Empire fights Boer republics in South Africa. Early use of concentration camps attracts international criticism 1900s September 8, 1900 — Galveston Hurricane The deadliest natural disaster in United States history. A powerful hurricane strikes Galveston, Texas. Results: Estimated 6,000–8,000 deaths Thousands of homes destroyed Much of the city devastated In the aftermath: Galveston constructs a massive seawall Large portions of the city are physically raised Economic and commercial growth increasingly shifts toward Houston The disaster permanently alters the future development of Texas. 1901 — Assassination of President McKinley President William McKinley is assassinated. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt becomes president. The Progressive Era accelerates. July 16, 1902 — Pilgrims Society Founded The Pilgrims Society is founded in London. Created to promote Anglo-American relations. Membership includes: Political leaders Diplomats Financiers Industrialists Military officers Aristocratic families 1902 — A Trip to the Moon A Trip to the Moon becomes one of the first narrative science-fiction films. An early milestone in cinematic storytelling. 1902 — Reclamation Act Creates the federal reclamation program. Leads to: Large-scale dam construction Irrigation projects Expansion of agriculture across the American West 1903 — New York Pilgrims Society Established The New York branch of the Pilgrims Society is established. Strengthens institutional links between influential American and British elites. 1903 — Panama Canal Project Begins Construction efforts begin on what becomes one of the most important engineering projects in history. The canal ultimately transforms: Global shipping Military logistics International trade December 17, 1903 — Wright Brothers Flight Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright achieve the first successful powered flight. Marks the beginning of modern aviation. 1904–1914 — Second Aliyah Additional migration from Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe. Many future political and institutional leaders arrive during this period. 1904 — Russo-Japanese War Japan defeats Russia. First major modern victory of an Asian power over a European empire. Shocks the world and alters global perceptions of military power. 1904 — Baltimore Great Fire More than 1,500 buildings destroyed. Losses include: Business records Legal records Municipal records The disaster highlights the lack of standardized firefighting systems between American cities. 1905 — Einstein's Annus Mirabilis Albert Einstein publishes groundbreaking papers on: Special relativity Brownian motion The photoelectric effect Transforms modern physics. 1905 — Russian Revolution Mass protests and unrest erupt across the Russian Empire. The Tsar is forced to implement limited reforms. Serves as a precursor to the revolutions of 1917 1906 — Osage Allotment Act Surface land is divided among tribal members. However, mineral rights remain collectively owned by the Osage Nation. Each enrolled tribal member receives a "headright" share in oil revenues. 1906–1921 — Greenwood ("Black Wall Street") The Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma develops into one of the most successful Black business communities in the United States. Becomes known as "Black Wall Street." 1906 — Naturalization Act Standardizes citizenship and immigration records. Represents an important milestone in federal identity documentation. April 18, 1906 — San Francisco Earthquake and Fire One of the most destructive disasters in American history. Results: Roughly 80% of the city destroyed Massive fires follow the earthquake Property records lost Community records lost Legal records lost Business records lost Many family and immigration histories become difficult to reconstruct. 1906–1910 — Expansion of Vital Records Systems States increasingly adopt standardized systems for: Birth certificates Death certificates Marriage records Public health reporting Identity becomes increasingly tied to official documentation rather than local community knowledge. 1907 — Panic of 1907 Major banking panic and financial crisis. Bank failures spread across the country. The crisis becomes a direct precursor to creation of the Federal Reserve System. 1907 — First Compulsory Sterilization Law Indiana becomes the first jurisdiction in the world to enact a compulsory sterilization law. The policy later influences eugenics legislation elsewhere in the United States and abroad. 1908 — Bureau of Investigation Created The U.S. Department of Justice creates the Bureau of Investigation. The agency later becomes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). June 30, 1908  Some believe that "The Tunguska Event", the  massive explosion in Siberia was the result of Tesla testing the power of his high-power radio frequency transmitter. The force of the blast at Tunguska has been estimated to have been equivalent to 10-15 megatons of TNT. The blast flattened 500,000 acres of pine forest, and was heard over a radius of 620 miles.  Nevertheless, Tesla touted the destructive power of electromagnetic warfare.  On April 21, 1908, days before the great Tunguska Event, Tesla wrote a letter to the N.Y. Times, which stated: When I spoke of future warfare I meant that it should be conducted by direct application of electrical waves without the use of aerial engines or other implements of destruction…This is not a dream. Even now wireless power plants could be constructed by which any region of the globe might be rendered uninhabitable without subjecting the population of other parts to serious danger or inconvenience. 1908 — Hetch Hetchy Water Project Approved The city of San Francisco seeks access to water from the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park following the 1906 earthquake and fire. A major national debate develops between conservationists and preservationists. 1908 — Bureau of Investigation Created The Bureau of Investigation is formed by the Department of Justice. Later becomes the FBI. 1908 — Ford Model T Introduced Ford Model T introduced by Ford Motor Company. Mass production helps make automobiles affordable to ordinary Americans. Transforms transportation and urban development. 1908–1918 — Young Turk Government The Young Turks gain power within the Ottoman Empire. Initially promising reform and constitutional government, elements of the movement become increasingly nationalist. Policies increasingly target non-Turkish minorities 1909 — NAACP Founded The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is established. Becomes one of the most influential civil-rights organizations in American history. 1910s–1920s — Osage Oil Wealth Massive oil production generates enormous royalty payments. Many Osage families receive substantial annual income from oil leases. The wealth attracts: Bankers Lawyers Businessmen Guardians Speculators 1910 — Eugenics Record Office The Eugenics Record Office opens in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. The organization becomes a major center for eugenics research in the United States. Its work later influences: Immigration policy Sterilization laws Institutional policies Public health programs 1910 — Boy Scouts of America Founded The Boy Scouts of America is founded. The organization grows into one of the largest youth organizations in the United States. 1911 — Standard Oil Broken Up The U.S. Supreme Court orders the breakup of Standard Oil. Creates companies that later become: Exxon Mobil Chevron Amoco Conoco March 25, 1911 — Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire Fire destroys the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City. 146 workers die, many of them young immigrant women. The disaster leads to major reforms involving: Workplace safety Fire codes Building regulations Labor protections 1911 — Roosevelt Dam Completed One of the first major federal reclamation dams completed under the Reclamation Act. Helps transform agriculture in Arizona and the American Southwest. 1911 — New York State Library Fire A major fire destroys large portions of the New York State Library and State Capitol collections. Massive archival losses include: Government records Historical manuscripts Genealogical materials Rare books One of the largest archival losses in American history. April 10–15, 1912 — Titanic Disaster The British passenger liner RMS Titanic strikes an iceberg during its maiden voyage and sinks in the North Atlantic. Results: More than 1,500 deaths One of the deadliest maritime disasters in history Major international shipping safety reforms Occurs during the peak era of transatlantic migration. 1913 — Federal Reserve Created The Federal Reserve System is established. Creates a central banking system for the United States. One of the most significant financial events in American history. The Federal Reserve becomes a central institution in: Banking Monetary policy Financial stability Economic management 1913 — Income Tax Authorized The 16th Amendment is ratified. Allows the federal government to collect income taxes directly. Significantly expands federal revenue capacity. 1913 — Raker Act (Hetch Hetchy) Congress authorizes construction of a dam in Hetch Hetchy Valley inside Yosemite National Park. The decision follows years of debate between preservationists led by John Muir and supporters of urban water development. The project ultimately supplies water and hydroelectric power to San Francisco and becomes one of the most significant environmental controversies in American history. One of the most controversial environmental decisions in U.S. history. The debate pits: John Muir and preservationists Supporters of urban water development  against one another.   1913–1951 — Dr. Leo Stanley's Prison Experiments At San Quentin State Prison, prison surgeon Leo Leonidas Stanley conducted numerous experimental procedures on inmates. Experiments included: Sterilization procedures Glandular and endocrine experiments Testicle transplants from executed prisoners Testicle transplants using animal tissue from goats, rams, and boars Stanley believed criminal behavior could be influenced by hormones and gland function. 1920s–1970s — Eugenic Sterilization Programs Thousands of people in prisons, psychiatric institutions, and state facilities underwent involuntary sterilization in the United States. Victims included: Prisoners Institutionalized patients Individuals labeled "feebleminded" Juveniles in state custody Many procedures targeted reproductive capacity rather than medical treatment. The U.S. Supreme Court decision in the Buck v. Bell upheld compulsory sterilization laws, helping expand these programs. 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study The U.S. Public Health Service conducted a study in Macon County, Alabama, examining the long-term effects of untreated syphilis in Black male sharecroppers. The study involved approximately 600 men: 399 with syphilis 201 without syphilis as controls Participants were not fully informed of their diagnosis and were told they were receiving medical care. Even after penicillin became the standard treatment for syphilis in the 1940s, researchers continued observing many participants rather than providing treatment. The consequences extended beyond the original subjects and included: Wives who contracted syphilis Children born with congenital syphilis The study continued until public exposure in 1972. In 1997, Bill Clinton issued a formal apology on behalf of the U.S. government. 1940s–1960s — Radiation Fertility Research During the Atomic Age Following World War II, government-funded researchers studied the effects of radiation exposure on fertility and reproduction. Research topics included: Sterility thresholds Genetic damage Reproductive effects of ionizing radiation Long-term consequences of nuclear exposure These studies contributed to Cold War radiation standards and risk models. 1960s–1970s — Holmesburg Prison Experiments At Holmesburg Prison in Philadelphia, inmates participated in a wide range of medical and pharmaceutical experiments. Some studies involved: Hormonal substances Reproductive effects Chemical exposures with possible fertility consequences The prison later became one of the most controversial sites of human experimentation in the United States. 1963–1973 — Testicular Radiation Experiments on Prisoners Researchers at the University of Washington conducted federally funded radiation experiments on inmates in Washington and Oregon prisons. Approximately 130 prisoners participated. The studies involved: Direct radiation exposure to the testicles Fertility studies Measurement of reproductive damage from ionizing radiation Participants later argued they were not adequately informed of the risks. In 2000, former subjects reached a settlement with the university. Combined Timeline 1913–1951 — Leo Stanley's testicle transplant experiments at San Quentin 1920s–1970s — Eugenic sterilization programs 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study 1940s–1960s — Radiation fertility research during the Atomic Age 1960s–1970s — Holmesburg Prison experiments 1963–1973 — Washington/Oregon prisoner testicular radiation experiments 1915–1917 — Armenian Genocide Ottoman authorities carry out mass deportations and killings of Armenians. Consequences include: Large-scale deaths Forced marches Property confiscations Destruction of communities Scholars generally estimate deaths ranging from several hundred thousand to over one million. The genocide becomes one of the defining human-rights catastrophes of the twentieth century.  The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire   Expropriated Armenian wealth and property   Attempted to erase Armenian cultural presence in Anatolia   Continued persecutions even after the initial wave of killings in 1915-1916  The Young Turks' role in the Armenian Genocide was comprehensive and deliberate, transforming Ottoman policy towards Armenians from discrimination to outright extermination. Their actions resulted in the deaths of at least 664,000 and possibly as many as 1.2 million Armenians, marking one of the most egregious violations of human rights in the 20th century.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Pre-1914 — Armenian Conditions in the Ottoman Empire Armenians remain legally classified under the Ottoman millet system. Earlier violence includes: Hamidian Massacres (1894–1896) Armenian self-defense groups emerge in some regions. Elements within Ottoman leadership increasingly portray Armenians as a security concern. June 28, 1914 — Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated in Sarajevo. The event triggers a chain reaction of alliances and mobilizations. Often regarded as the immediate spark of World War I. 1914–1918 — World War I The first large-scale industrialized global war. Characteristics include: Mass conscription Trench warfare Machine guns Artillery bombardment Chemical weapons Total societal mobilization Approximately 16–20 million deaths occur worldwide. The conflict reshapes the twentieth century. 1915 — Lusitania Sinking German submarine U-20 sinks RMS Lusitania. Nearly 1,200 people die. The incident increases anti-German sentiment in the United States. German submarine sinks Lusitania – 1915   On the afternoon of May 7, 1915, the British ocean liner Lusitania is torpedoed without warning by a German submarine off the south coast of Ireland. Within 20 minutes, the vessel sank into the Celtic Sea. Of 1,959 passengers and crew, 1,198 people were drowned, including 128 Americans. The attack aroused considerable indignation in the United States, but Germany defended the action, noting that it had issued warnings of its intent to attack all ships, neutral or otherwise, that entered the war zone around Britain. When World War I erupted in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson pledged neutrality for the United States, a position that the vast majority of Americans favored. Britain, however, was one of America's closest trading partners, and tension soon arose between the United States and Germany over the latter's attempted quarantine of the British isles. Several U.S. ships traveling to Britain were damaged or sunk by German mines, and in February 1915 Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in the waters around Britain. In early May 1915, several New York newspapers published a warning by the German embassy in Washington that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. The announcement was placed on the same page as an advertisement of the imminent sailing of the Lusitania liner from New York back to Liverpool. The sinkings of merchant ships off the south coast of Ireland prompted the British Admiralty to warn the Lusitania to avoid the area or take simple evasive action, such as zigzagging to confuse U-boats plotting the vessel's course. The captain of the Lusitania ignored these recommendations, and at 2:12 p.m. on May 7 the 32,000-ton ship was hit by an exploding torpedo on its starboard side. The torpedo blast was followed by a larger explosion, probably of the ship's boilers, and the ship sunk in 20 minutes. It was revealed that the Lusitania was carrying about 173 tons of war munitions for Britain, which the Germans cited as further justification for the attack. The United States eventually sent three notes to Berlin protesting the action, and Germany apologized and pledged to end unrestricted submarine warfare. In November, however, a U-boat sunk an Italian liner without warning, killing 272 people, including 27 Americans. Public opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany. On January 31, 1917, Germany, determined to win its war of attrition against the Allies, announced that it would resume unrestricted warfare in war-zone waters. Three days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, and just hours after that the American liner Housatonic was sunk by a German U-boat. On February 22, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war. In late March, Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships, and on April 2 President Wilson appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany. On April 4, the Senate voted to declare war against Germany, and two days later the House of Representatives endorsed the declaration. With that, America entered World War I. The RMS Lusitania had recently departed New York when it was fatally torpedoed by a German U-boat. Unknown to the passengers on board, however, were 173 tons of weaponry bound for war. Just three years following the sinking of the Titanic, there was another tragedy in the Atlantic: the 1915 sinking of the RMS Lusitania. Of the 1,960 known passengers, 1,196 of them died after the British liner was torpedoed by a German U-boat in the midst of World War I. The British ship had nearly the exact opposite route as its sunken predecessor and departed New York on May 1, 1915, to make the long journey to Liverpool — the Titanic left Southampton and was headed for New York. Besides civilians, the ship held a crew of over 500 — and some four million rounds of small-arms ammunition. While the Titanic is largely believed to have been the result of human hubris and a lack of foresight, the sinking of the RMS Lusitania may have been the result of a political conspiracy. It even catalyzed — in part — America's future involvement in the so-called Great War. Though it took nearly two years following her destruction, the United States did formally enter World War I, and it is often thought that the Lusitania incident, in conjunction with other factors, influenced this decision. The RMS Lusitania The RMS Lusitania and her sister ship, Mauretania, were the fastest passenger liners of their time. The high-speed Lusitania promised crowds first-class passage across the Atlantic in five days. These two ships were also the largest liners from their launch in 1906 until they were surpassed by Olympic and, of course, the Titanic.   Wikimedia CommonsThe first launch of the RMS Lusitania. June 7, 1906. The British government itself had sanctioned Lusitania's construction under the provision that should the circumstances require, she could be converted into an armed merchant cruiser. When World War I broke out, it seemed Lusitania would be called for duty, but she was ultimately relieved of her wartime responsibilities. Meanwhile, in an attempt to destroy the strong naval blockade the British had levied against them, the Germans waged unrestricted submarine warfare on British ships in the Atlantic. Commercial liners like the Lusitania were thus in great danger every time they went anchors up. She nonetheless remained in commercial service. For a time her colors were painted grey in disguise and her fourth boiler was shut down. By 1915, however, Britain felt confident enough in launching the Lusitania with full colors and scheduled her for launch across the Atlantic on May 1.   Getty ImagesThe magnificent lounge of the Cunard steamship Lusitania circa 1910. American Sentiment Before The Sinking The sinking of the Lusitania would sweep the American public into a fervent anti-German sentiment, but before the tragedy, the United States saw little reason to involve itself in Europe's bloody conflict. Tensions between Germany and the U.S. had escalated by 1915, however, as Germany's attempts to quarantine the British Isles restricted America's lucrative trade relationship with the U.K. Getty ImagesNewspaper ad from the German Embassy in Washington warning Lusitania travelers. Newspapers in New York published a warning on May 1, 1915 — right below an ad for the Lusitania — on behalf of the German Embassy in Washington, D.C, that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones should be aware of the danger in lurking German U-boats. But the passengers were assured that the Lusitania's speeds would keep them safe and the captain was told to employ zig-zag maneuvers to avoid U-boats. The Sinking Of The Lusitania Captain William Thomas Turner took the helm of the Lusitania when the ship's prior captain fell too ill to operate her. It was claimed that the prior captain was too anxious to direct a ship through a war zone. On May 1, 1915, she launched off New York's Pier 54 with a crew of 694 and 1,265 passengers, mostly British, Canadian, and American. The ship was burdened with an overbooked second class and a full first class. At approximately 2:12 p.m. on May 7, 1915, a torpedo struck the ship's starboard side. The 32,000-ton ship was irrevocably damaged. Some witnesses, including Captain Turner himself, would later say that two torpedoes were involved.   Wikimedia CommonsThe writing and reading room of for first class passengers of the RMS Lusitania. The primary explosion led to a secondary eruption, likely due to the ship's boilers blowing up from the initial blaze. It was presumably this subsequent detonation that resulted in the Lusitania's rather expedient disappearance from the ocean's surface. It was difficult for the crew to launch lifeboats due to the angle of the ship's sinking, and many boats splintered and capsized, taking dozens of passengers with them. The ship did not stay afloat for long and all passengers were forced to jump into the Atlantic's freezing waters. As such, many froze to death or drowned. It took a mere 18 minutes for the RMS Lusitania to start its descent to the ocean floor. To make matters worse, a nearby steamship refused to come to the Lusitania's rescue as it feared that it too could be susceptible to a torpedo attack. The Unknown 173-Ton Passenger The public later discovered that the ocean liner was carrying supplies of war among its cargo — 173 tons of it, to be specific. There were no mounted offenses aboard to protect it against enemy vessels, this was a cruise ship, to be sure, but here it was saddled with 173 tons of munitions bound for Britain presumably under the guise of a commercial voyage. According to Steven and Emily Gittelman's book, Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt: The Unlikely Hero of the Lusitania, stowing weapons of war aboard commercial vessels had actually become common practice by 1915. In a stage of the war where wanton U-boat warfare could easily sink any and all transport ships supplying European allies with the tools they needed, alternatives had to be employed. "Many ships such as the Cameronia had already been requisitioned by the Admiralty to become armed merchant cruisers or loaded heavily with ammunition," the Gittelmans asserted. Chronicling America/Library of CongressThe New York Tribune's front page the day after the sinking of the Lusitania. May 8, 1915. The Germans maintained that despite also carrying citizens, the Lusitania was carrying weapons of war, which made her an enemy vessel. The United Kingdom subsequently saw a groundswell of anti-German sentiment. As the First Lord of the British Admiralty, Winston Churchill said that "the poor babies who perished in the ocean struck a blow at German power more deadly than could have been achieved by the sacrifice of 100,000 men." Moreover, American President Woodrow Wilson had already issued a diplomatic warning to Germany that if an American vessel or the lives of American citizens' was lost without just cause, the United States would "hold Germany to 'strict' accountability." In September of that year, Germany formally apologized for the sinking and vowed to curb its unregulated U-boat warfare activity. For the time being, President Wilson was satisfied enough with this apology as not to declare war on Germany. This didn't last long. In 1917, the infamous Zimmerman telegram ushered the Americans into the Great War. Library of CongressThe sinking of the Lusitania ushered in a dramatic rise in anti-German sentiment among both British and American citizenry. An Impetus For War British intelligence intercepted a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman to the German Minister of Mexico, Henrich von Eckhardt, which revealed that Germany was prepared to return to its previous model of wanton submarine warfare. All ships in the official war zone would be sunk, regardless of their civilian capacities, the telegram read. The telegram also revealed that Germany was considering an alliance with Mexico if the U.S. sided with the European Allies. This telegram, in combination with the loss of 120 American passengers aboard the Lusitania, justified to the Americans joining the war. Meanwhile, the ship's captain was accused of negligence and blamed for her destruction. Library of CongressOne of the 120 American victims of the sinking of the Lusitania being carried away on a stretcher. 1915. It was alleged that he was given specific instructions regarding safety maneuvers which he failed to follow. First Sea Lord Fisher asserted that "it's a certainty that Captain Turner is not a fool but a knave. I hope that Turner will be arrested immediately after the enquiry whatever the verdict." It was concluded that Turner had ignored every safety precaution of which he had been informed and was thus the cause for the ship's demise. Caught In An Espionage Operation According to Erik Larson, author of Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania, the blame does not solely rest on the ship's captain, and rather, on a covert British mission. In the Milton Keynes complex within Bletchley Park, where Alan Turing hacked the Nazi Enigma machine decades later, Brits deciphered German codebooks to mount anti-submarine espionage missions in a so-called "Room 40." Larson's research has led him to believe that the British intelligence unit in Room 40 orchestrated a cover-up for the ship's sinking by blaming it on the Lusitania's captain in order to preserve its espionage program. "Room 40 was this super-secret organization founded by the Admiralty to take advantage of the miraculous recovery of three German codebooks," Larson explained. "Using those codebooks, they successfully intercepted and read German naval communications." Footage of the Lusitania's captain, William Thomas Turner, retiring in 1919, courtesy of Pathé. Additionally, a British detective named William Pierpoint was assigned to board the Lusitania covertly to scope for potential German agents in hiding. He did apprehend three such agents the day the ship launched. The question then becomes whether or not the British were aware of Germany's attack on the ocean liner before it happened — and if so, did they then allow it to happen. But had they interfered, then they ran the risk of exposing their covert mission to the Germans. Perhaps they too thought that in allowing the Germans to attack a commercial liner, then potential allies like the Americans would have a reason to join in their war effort. One thing is for certain, however: the British blamed the Lusitania's captain as soon as they possibly could which, in and of itself, warrants some suspicion. "It's not exactly clear why the Admiralty went after Turner," said Larson. "But what is very clear from the record is that the Admiralty went after him immediately, within 24 hours. Turner was going to be made the scapegoat, which is odd because the publicity value of laying the blame on Germany would have been enormous." Footage of the aftermath, showing bodies being recovered and buried in Ireland, courtesy of Pathé. When asked whether or not Larson believed that this meant there was a British cover-up in place during the immediate aftermath of the ship's tragic sinking, he didn't dismiss the notion. "Cover-up is a very contemporary term," he said. "But one of Churchill's top priorities, when he was in the Admiralty, was to keep Room 40 a secret. Even to the point, as one of its members said, of not passing along actionable information that could have saved lives." Larson even referenced a prestigious naval historian who wrote a book about the top-secret Room 40 department. The man, long dead, was interviewed and left behind a transcript in the Imperial War Museum in London which essentially confirmed Larson's suspicions. "I've thought and thought about this and there's no other way to think about it except to imagine some sort of conspiracy," the transcript read. Survivor Accounts From The Lusitania "She was presumed dead and was left among the pile of other dead bodies," Colleen Watters reported to the BBC about her grandmother, Nettie Moore's, experience on the Lusitania. "Fortunately, her brother John noticed her eyelid flutter and eventually they were able to resuscitate her." Nettie Moore's survival the attack on the Lusitania wasn't a singular occurrence. Though 1,196 people died — including 94 children — a combination of luck and human aid saved some 767. "My grandmother, Nettie Moore, grew up in Ballylesson, County Down, and her childhood sweetheart was Walter Mitchell, who was the son of the rector at the local Holy Trinity Church in Drumbo," Watters explained. Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)One of the lifeboats from the RMS Lusitania is hauled onto the beach on the coast of Ireland. May 1915. When Mitchell was offered a position in Newark, New Jersey in 1912, he married Moore and the couple had a child named Walter in 1914. In order to get to New Jersey, the family decided to book a voyage on the luxurious ocean liner and set proverbial sail. Mitchell's brother John tagged along. "My grandmother always emphasized how happy they were on the boat," Watters recalled. "They had just finished lunch when Walter and Nettie went down to the cabin to see the baby who was being looked after while John joined his friends playing cards." At that exact moment, the torpedo hit. Though the family managed to secure a lifeboat, the elements were too harsh to survive. "Walter was holding his son but the baby died quite soon of exposure," Watters said. "They were trying to hold onto an upturned lifeboat. Walter eventually said 'I can't hold on any longer' and slipped away." Facebook/Cobh and Cork Harbour CentenariesMourners following the sinking of the Lusitania gather in Cobh, Ireland. "Their bodies were taken out of the water. My grandmother said she remembered being dragged by her feet, and her head bouncing on the deck of the ship. She was taken for dead and she was left with the dead bodies on the quayside." John, meanwhile, was fished out of the ocean by a local tugboat and brought to Cobh in County Cork, Ireland. He observed the dead being dragged out of the water — and saw both his brother and sister-in-law's bodies. It was too late for Mitchell, but John managed to resuscitate Moore. Moore was lucky. 885 deceased passengers were never found and of 289 bodies recovered from the sea, 65 were never identified. "I have been told that Nettie was in a shoe shop in Cork, and John was buying her shoes so they could come home," said Watters. "There she met some sailors who said they had found the body of a beautiful baby and she begged them to tell her where was the baby, what did they do with it, as she was sure it was Walter. But despite the best efforts, they weren't able to locate the body." Topical Press Agency/Getty ImagesA funeral service for the victims was held in Cobh, County Cork, Ireland. Moore, like countless other survivors of the RMS Lusitania, went through an unspeakably difficult time after the catastrophe. She couldn't sleep and feared she would soon lose her mind. The loss of her baby only compounded her psychological troubles. Only when a doctor overseeing her progress told her that she had to find hard work in order to find renewed purpose did she begin to get better. Moore became a nurse and trained as a midwife in the Rotunda hospital in Dublin. She spent the rest of her life helping deliver babies. Ultimately, that is about as positive an outcome as any when it comes to those who lived through the Lusitania disaster. Most passengers died by drowning in the ocean or succumbing to the temperatures. Those who lived lost friends or relatives. Tragically, the ship's sinking only led to more casualties and deaths — as World War I had just gained a new participant from the U.S. After learning about the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, have a look at these 33 rare Titanic photos from before and after its sinking. Then, check out the worst disaster in American maritime history, the explosion and sinking of the Sultana. "Churchill Sank the Lusitania to Get America into the War" By RICHARD M. LANGWORTH | October 19, 2023   Extract from the 1918 film, "Sinking of the Lusitania." (Winsor McCay, Wikimedia Commons) On 7 May 1915, Royal Mail Ship Lusitania was sunk within sight of land by a German submarine. Of her 1962 passengers and crew, 1199 (some estimates are higher) lost their lives. In the midst of the Dardanelles-Gallipoli crisis, the tragedy seemed incidental to some. Yet for a century, rumors swirled that Lusitania was deliberately sacrificed by the British, chiefly Churchill. His alleged aim was to so infuriate the Americans as to bring them into the war against Germany. More recently, critics charged that Churchill's Admiralty purposely contrived to steer the ship into harm's way. The complaint against Churchill reached critical mass in Colin Simpson's The Lusitania (1972). This popular work was selected by four book clubs and excerpted in the Reader's Digest and Life. Simpson's charges have frequently been repeated, especially since the arrival of the Internet. As recently as 2014, a book on Franklin Roosevelt, The Mantle of Command, casually alleged that the Churchill had a role in the loss of the "ill-fated American liner."1 The Lusitania was British, not American, operated by Cunard, commanded by Captain William Turner RNR. Inbound from New York, she was torpedoed by the German submarine U-20 eleven miles off the Old Head of Kinsale, Ireland. She experienced two explosions, the second catastrophic, and sank in only eighteen minutes. Among the lives lost were 128 Americans. Scholarly testimony to the most logical events has been published, but lacking glitz and pathos, it tends to be ignored.2 Yet rebuttals to Simpson's claims were in print long before his book, which mainly resurrected old canards.3 The New York Times, 8 May 1915. The newspaper marked this photo with an "X" and "XX" to suggest where torpedoes hit. Historians now generally agree that only one was fired. (Wikimedia Commons) "Armed cruiser containing troops and munitions" After the sinking, the German government referred to its prior warnings to travelers to avoid the vessels of Germany's enemies. Such ships were liable to be sunk, the Germans declared, particularly if they were armed. Simpson described the sighting of the liner, by Kapitänleutnant Walther Schwieger: "either the Lusitania or the Mauretania [her identical sister], both armed cruisers used for trooping."4 If that was how Schwieger saw her, it is inaccurate. The Lusitania (built in 1908 with possible wartime use in mind) did have twelve emplacements for small, six-inch guns. But no guns were ever fitted. If they had been, she certainly would have been an "armed cruiser." The Germans had examined her in New York. Had they found mounted guns, they would have demanded she be interned. They never did, and 109 witnesses at subsequent British and American inquiries said they saw no sign of guns.5 Neither were any troops aboard. Even if guns weren't mounted, Simpson argued, they were on board—not explaining what use they would be unmounted. Historian Thomas Bailey confounded even that argument, writing that a German reservist claiming to have seen mounted guns "confessed [to] perjury and was imprisoned." M.R. Dow, a reviewer with family connections to Cunard and the ship, wrote: "Simpson must have seen a German propaganda poster showing the Lusitania with guns popping out all over."6 "Explosives payload" Another claim is that Lusitania carried a huge cargo of guncotton, whose detonation blew the bottom out. "This is also pure fantasy," wrote Dow. "The amount of explosive claimed by Simpson actually amounts to what was a very high percentage of explosives delivered to the Western Front."7 A similar claim occurred in a 2007 documentary, Murder on the Atlantic. The Lusitania manifest did include 173 tons of rifle cartridges and unarmed shrapnel shells—not much in a 32,000-ton ship. Thomas Bailey wrote that were "not considered capable of causing a large detonation. American law apparently forbade only munitions which were considered a hazard to the safety of the passengers."8 Witnesses confirmed two explosions, the first caused by a German torpedo, the second of unknown but conspiratorial interest. The Lusitania was "loaded with munitions," goes the story; these caused the second explosion, which did most of the damage. More recent scholarship suggests the second explosion was caused by sea water hitting the ship's boilers after the torpedo struck.9 The Germans' best case for claiming that Lusitania was a ship of war was an order by the British Admiralty for merchant vessels to ram U-boats. But this was not their main line of defense. Speed, not ramming, was the ocean liner's main advantage. At her flank speed of 28 knots, Lusitania was three times as fast as a submerged U-boat, and nearly twice as fast as one on the surface.  Sailing into danger The scholar Harry V. Jaffa placed most of the blame on human error: "Not only was her steam reduced; her crew was also. The best men had been taken by the Royal Navy; lifeboat drills were listless…. The davits by which they had to be lowered were virtually unworkable from the moment the ship began to list. But the greatest of all the failures was the captain's, since he navigated almost exactly as he would have done in peacetime." Captain Turner had slowed down after striking the Irish coast, in order to arrive with the tide at Merseyside. In the 1930s, political opponents anxious to discredit Churchill's warnings about Hitler claimed he had purposely endangered Lusitania. This view was widely held by the Germans, including the Kaiser, Bailey wrote: "No evidence has ever been presented to support the theory."10 In 1972, Simpson claimed that Lusitania had "sailing orders" instructing Turner to rendezvous with a naval escort, the cruiser HMS Juno, off southwest Ireland. This put her on a direct course for U-boat-infested areas. But Sir Courtenay Bennett, the British Consul-General in New York, was quoted by Simpson as saying no such orders were issued.11 Captain Turner never referred to any orders, and Churchill said they would have made no sense. The navy did not have the resources to escort hundreds of merchant ships. Exceptions were sometimes made, but not for fast ships like Lusitania. "In a channel, where she could not maneuver, the Lusitania might well have needed an escort," Jaffa wrote. "But why she should need one forty miles west of Fastnet is something it was incumbent upon Mr. Simpson to explain."12 The liner sank in only 18 minutes. (Drawing by Claus Bergen, 1915, Library of Congress, public domain) Lusitania "was now alone" The second allegation against Churchill is a meeting said to have occurred on 5 May 1915 in the Admiralty map room. Present were Churchill, First Sea Lord Fisher, Chief of Naval War Staff Admiral Oliver, Director of Naval Intelligence Captain Hall, and Commander Kenworthy of Naval Intelligence. On the map were markers denoting U-20 (apparently the British knew exactly where she was), Juno and Lusitania, "closing Fastnet at upwards of 20 knots."  Simpson writes: "Admiral Oliver drew to Churchill's attention the fact that the Juno was unsuitable for exposure to submarine attack without escort, and suggested that elements of the destroyer flotilla from Milford Haven should be sent forthwith to her assistance." Here, Simpson wrote, "the Admiralty War Diary stops short, perhaps understandably, as it was here the decision was made that was to be the direct cause of the disaster…. Shortly after noon on May 5 the Admiralty signaled Juno to abandon her escort mission and return to Queenstown…. The Lusitania was not informed that she was now alone….13 Churchill's "conspiracy" The "Admiralty War Diary" mentioned in this melodramatic paragraph appears nowhere else in Simpson's book, not even the bibliography. No historian has found it. Professor Jaffa concluded that it was mix of accurate records and sheer supposition: "However much the ebullient Churchill interested himself in naval operations, it was not his primary task to make operational decisions"—particularly in the presence of Fisher, with whom Churchill was then "quarreling bitterly over the Dardanelles."14 (Fisher resigned ten days later.) The only eyewitness Simpson offered was Commander Joseph Kenworthy, later Baron Strabolgi, a Liberal turned Labourite and prominent pacifist.15 In his 1927 book, The Freedom of the Seas, he said Lusitania "was sent at considerably reduced speed into an area where a U-boat was known to be waiting and with her escorts withdrawn."16 The only part of this that is credible is the last four words.  HMS Juno (laid down 1898) made no sense as an escort. Her top speed was 19.5 knots, well below Lusitania's. It might be argued that Turner with his "sailing orders" slowed to rendezvous with Juno, having not been "informed" he was "now alone." But Turner, who survived, never confirmed this. Sailing orders that did exist In recounting the tragedy in 1937, Churchill himself quoted four distinct Admiralty orders: 6 May, 0050: To all British ships: Avoid headlands. Pass harbours at full speed. Steer mid-Channel course. Submarines off Fastnet. 6 May, 0750: To Lusitania: Submarines active off south coast of Ireland. 7 May, 1125:  To all British ships: Submarines active in southern part of Irish Channel. Last heard of south of Coningbeg Lighthouse. Make certain Lusitania gets this."  7 May, 1240: To Lusitania: Submarines five miles south of Cape Clear proceeding west when sighted at 10am. Churchill adds: "All these messages were duly received."17 Summary Except for Kenworthy's account, no other evidence, even circumstantial, exists of a conspiracy to sink the Lusitania. The chief cause of her loss was Captain Turner's decision, after sighting the Irish coast, to proceed northward at reduced speed to "make the tide" at Merseyside, as he would have in peacetime. He did not avoid headlands. He did not zig-zag, a routine precaution in submarine-infested waters. Though he had the time, he did not head out to deeper waters, maintaining speed to minimize the danger. At his normal cruising speed, chances of a successful torpedo attack would have been greatly reduced. There was no advantage and every danger in slowing down. It can be argued that Churchill and Fisher should have accepted Admiral Oliver's undocumented recommendation to escort the liner with destroyers. But as Lusitania historian David Ramsay noted: "…the Dardanelles operation entailed the diversion from home waters of destroyers—the one class of ship in which the Royal Navy had a negligible superiority over the Germans. Commenting on the loss of the Lusitania…Admiral Duff wrote: 'Indirectly the Dardanelles operation contributed; the [destroyers] that should be guarding merchant shipping are being used there.'"18 Ramsay, writing in 2004, confirmed the findings of Bailey and Jaffa. He also quoted "historians Stephen Roskill and David Stafford, who are at one in rejecting any conspiracy, by Churchill or anyone else."   Source:"Churchill Sank the Lusitania to Get America into the War" FALSE FLAG ATTACK: The Sinking of the Lusitania   RMS LUSITANIA FalseFlag.info World War I started in July of 1914 between the Allies comprised of the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire and the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Later in the war, the U.S., Italy and Japan joined the Allies and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers. The people of the United States were not interested in joining the war. U.S. bankers and businessmen however, were making a sturdy profit from war bond trading and munitions sales. J.P. Morgan was brokering war bonds and making commissions on both the purchase and sale of them to finance the Allied cause. He had approximately $1.5 billion in loans out to France and England. Morgan was also heavily invested in shipping lines including the British White Star Lines that were supplying the Allies with food and ammunition supplies. J.P. Morgan had much to lose if the Allies lost the war and defaulted on his loans, bonds, and shipping contracts.   The Germans had a fleet of Uboats that were sinking the supply ships for the Allies. There was an agreement called Cruiser Rules which allowed for the Uboat to surface, issue a warning to allow the passengers to escape to lifeboats, and then the Uboat would sink the ship. Winston Churchill who was the First Lord of the Admiralty issued orders to merchant ships to fire upon or ram the Uboats.  This forced the Uboats to sink them without Churchill was desperate to have the U.S. join the Allies in the war. "The first countermove, made on my responsibility, was to deter the Germans from surface attack. The submerged U-boat had to rely increasingly on underwater attack and thus ran the greater risk of mistaking neutral for British ships and of drowning neutral crews and thus embroiling Germany with other Great Powers" The World Crisis by Winston Churchill. Churchill also ordered British ships to remove their names and when in port fly the flag of a neutral power, preferably the U.S. flag. Also the survivors of the U-boats "should be taken or shot-whichever is the most convenient" and "In all actions, white flags should be fired upon with promptitude." Just before the RMS Lusitania sailed in May, Churchill wrote this memo to Walter Runciman, president of Britain's Board of Trade: "It is most important to attract neutral shipping to our shores in the hope especially of embroiling the United States with Germany . . . . For our part we want the traffic — the more the better; and if some of it gets into trouble, better still."   The German Embassy in the U.S. paid for an advertising warning in 50 U.S. papers in April 1915 that the Lusitaniawas at risk for destruction and travelers should embark at their own risk. The U.S. State Department intervened though and only one paper, the Des Moines Register ran the warning. The Lusitania set sail for Liverpool on May 1st, 1915 from New York harbor. It was carrying millions of rounds of ammunition and shrapnel. The previous captain Daniel Dow had resigned because of mixing civilian passengers with munitions. The ship was to have a British battleship escort called the Juno but was recalled before the rendezvous in spite of the knowledge that a Uboat was active in the path of the Lusitania. On May 5th, the Uboat U20 sank the schooner Earl of Lathom. On May 6th, it also sank two more ships, the Candidate and Centurion. All of these sinkings occurred directly in Lusitania's course. The Lusitania was given orders under the premise of saving coal to only run 3 of 4 boilers which would slow the vessel considerably. The only warning Lusitania received was a general "submarines active off south coast of Ireland". At about 2:10 pm on May 7th the Lusitania was hit with a torpedo that had been fired by U20. Immediately following the explosion, a second explosion occurred. The ship sunk in 18 minutes. There were 1,959 people on board of which 1,198 died including 128 Americans. Captain William Turner was blamed by the Admiralty in an official Board of Trade inquiry held by Lord Mersey. Captain Richard Webb of the navy wrote to Mersey: "I am directed by the board of Admiralty to inform you that it is considered politically expedient that Capt Turner, the master of the Lusitania, be most prominently blamed for the disaster." Winston Churchill's response to the report given to Mersey was "Fully concur! We shall pursue the Captain without check!" Luckily for Captain Turner, Lord Mersey was a fair man and saw that Turner was becoming the scapegoat. Turner was found not guilty and the German government was blamed. Mersey resigned and called the trial "a damned, dirty business." The sinking of the Lusitania was a clear false flag perpetrated by Winston Churchill and the British Admiralty to draw America into the war. The blame should have been placed on Churchill's orders and not the German government. It was probably no coincidence that the ship was owned by J.P. Morgan's competition in shipping. The Lusitaniasinking did not immediately draw the U.S. into war however, and it was almost two years later that the U.S. finally joined the war. The U.S. has a big share of the blame as well. Colonel Edward M House who was Woodrow Wilson's right hand adviser was in Europe trying test the waters on how to get the U.S. into the war. Wilson had to remain to appear as anti-war since he ran on the 1916 presidential campaign slogan "He kept us out of war". Colonel House came up with a scheme to make it appear that the U.S was trying to broker peace with the Axis powers. The peace offering would be unacceptable to the Germans so it would seem as though the U.S. had attempted diplomacy. This is a memo from Walter Hines Page, the U.S. Ambassador to England, dated Feb. 9, 1916: "House arrived from Berlin-Havre-Paris full of the idea of American intervention. First his plan was that he and I and a group of the British Cabinet (Grey, Asquith, Lloyd George, Reading, etc.) should at once work out a minimum programme of peace – the least that the Allies would accept, which, he assumed, would be unacceptable to the Germans; and that the President would take this programme and present it to both sides; the side that declined would be responsible for continuing the war… Of course, the fatal moral weakness of the foregoing scheme is that we should plunge into the War, not on the merits of the cause, but by a carefully sprung trick." From The Strangest Friendship in History: Woodrow Wilson and Colonel HouseGeorge S. Vierick. Then this memo was issued by Sir Edward Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, on Feb. 22nd, 1916: Colonel House told me that President Wilson was ready, on hearing from France and England that the moment was opportune, to propose that a Conference should be summoned to put an end to the war. Should the Allies accept this proposal, and should Germany refuse it, the United States would probably enter the war against Germany. Colonel House expressed the opinion that, if such a Conference met, it would secure peace on terms not unfavourable to the Allies; and, if it failed to secure peace, the United States would leave the Conference as a belligerent on the side of the Allies, if Germany was unreasonable. Colonel House expressed an opinion decidedly favourable to the restoration of Belgium, the transfer of Alsace and Lorraine to France, and the acquisition by Russia of an outlet to the sea, though he thought that the loss of territory incurred by Germany in one place would have to be compensated to her by concessions to her in other places outside Europe. If the Allies delayed accepting the offer of President Wilson, and if, later on, the course of the war was so unfavourable to them that the intervention of the United States would not be effective, the United States would probably disinterest themselves in Europe and look to their own protection in their own way. I said that I felt the statement, coming from the President of the United States, to be a matter of such importance that I must inform the Prime Minister and my colleagues; but that I could say nothing until it had received their consideration. The British Government could, under no circumstances accept or make any proposal except in consultation and agreement with the Allies… (Initialled 'E.G.' by Sir Edward Grey) Foreign Office. Wilson also had an agenda to bring in his vision of world government under the League of Nations and saw World War I as his opportunity to do so. The plans of Churchill, Wilson, Morgan, and House to get the U.S. involved in the war came to fruition on April 16, 1917 when the U.S. formally declared war.   Source: RMS Lusitania - FalseFlag.info 1915–1917 — Armenian Genocide Ottoman authorities carry out mass deportations and killings of Armenians. Consequences include: Large-scale deaths Forced marches Property confiscation Community destruction Population displacement Scholarly estimates generally range from several hundred thousand to over one million deaths. The genocide becomes one of the defining human-rights catastrophes of the twentieth century. 1915 - 1917  Armenian Genocide  -Shortly after the systematic arrest and execution of Armenian intellectuals, the Ottoman authorities escalated their genocidal campaign by ordering the forced deportation of Armenian populations from their ancestral lands in Anatolia. What was framed as a "resettlement" was, in reality, a death sentence. Entire villages and towns were emptied as men, women, and children were driven from their homes under the pretext of wartime security. Men were frequently executed outright, often gathered in groups and shot, bayoneted, or burned alive—methods designed not just for extermination but for terror. Without their husbands, fathers, and brothers to protect them, women, children, and the elderly were left defenseless, forced into grueling death marches toward the Syrian Desert. These marches were deliberately designed to maximize suffering and fatalities. Ottoman forces and Kurdish paramilitary groups, acting under government orders, systematically brutalized the deportees. Many were subjected to rape, abduction, and human trafficking, with young Armenian girls sold into slavery or forcibly converted to Islam. Deportation and mass killing   ~1–1.5 million Armenians killed   Camps, bureaucracy, denial   During the late Ottoman period, particularly 1914–1915, Armenian civilians were systematically disarmed prior to and during the genocide—but this did not occur as a single voluntary act of "giving up arms." It happened through state coercion and deception. Key elements:  Selective disarmament Armenian men were conscripted into the Ottoman army, then: Disarmed   Reassigned to labor battalions   Executed en masse   This removed organized Armenian self-defense early.   Civilian weapon confiscation   Authorities ordered Armenians to surrender weapons under threat.   Searches followed; weapons were often planted to justify punishment.   Disarmament was framed as a "security" measure during wartime.   Isolation after disarmament   Once disarmed:   Deportation orders were issued   Villages were emptied   Armed escorts and irregular militias carried out mass killings   With no weapons, communities were unable to resist deportation columns or massacres.   Genocide followed  -Approximately 1–1.5 million Armenians were killed through:   Mass shootings   Death marches   Starvation   Sexual violence   These actions are recognized as genocide by most historians and many states.   Why this pattern matters historically   Historians often identify a recurring sequence in mass atrocities:   Identification of a target population  Legal or administrative marginalization Disarmament (formal or informal) Isolation Mass violence framed as "security" or "relocation"   This sequence appears not only in the Armenian Genocide, but also in:   Nazi Germany (Jewish disarmament and police powers)   Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge   Rwanda (weapon monopolization by militias)   Bosnia (UN "safe areas" without arms)   April 24, 1915  -Armenian political, religious, and intellectual leaders arrested in Constantinople   Many are deported inland and killed. This date is widely recognized as the start of the genocide. May 1915  -Armenians Tehcir Law (Temporary Deportation Law) enacted. Deportation orders issued province by province.   Deportation is presented as:   "Relocation"   "Security measure"   "Protection from war zones"   Spring–Summer 1915  -Armenian civilians are:   Forced from homes with minimal notice Allowed to take little or no food or property Placed in unarmed columns Property is confiscated or redistributed under "abandoned property" laws.   Crucial point: Deportation occurs after disarmament and leadership removal.   Summer–Fall 1915  -Entire columns are:   Massacred outside towns   Driven into rivers or ravines   Burned alive in barns and caves   Women and children are:   Sold   Forced into slavery or conversion   Killed after prolonged abuse   1915 — The Birth of a Nation Released Directed by D. W. Griffith. One of the first blockbuster feature films in history. Introduced filmmaking techniques that influenced the modern movie industry. Depicted Reconstruction and African Americans in highly racist ways. Portrayed Black men as threats to white women. Helped popularize Lost Cause mythology after the Civil War. Often credited with contributing to the revival of the Ku Klux Klan. Generated protests from groups including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. It wasn't just a movie. It demonstrated the growing power of mass media to shape public opinion, historical memory, race relations, and politics. By 1915, films could reach millions of people and influence how Americans understood their own history. 1916  Armenian Survivors who reach camps in Syria and Mesopotamia Are deliberately starved   Killed in secondary massacres   Ottoman Interior Ministry orders camps "liquidated."   1916 — Sykes–Picot Agreement   UK–France divide Ottoman lands   Create mandate states: Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine   1916 — Easter Rising  -Ireland. Important precursor to: Irish independence Irish migration British Empire tensions 1916 — National Park Service Created The National Park Service is established. Creates a permanent federal system for managing national parks and historic sites. 1917 — Russian Revolution Bolsheviks seize power. 1917 — The British Rebrand Amid anti-German sentiment, King George V dropped Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. House of Windsor created (July 17, 1917). Often summarized as: "German blood, English name." Habsburg and German relatives quietly resettled in Britain under neutral or Anglican covers. Fall of the Romanovs   Collapse of the Romanov dynasty Abdication of Tsar Nicholas II   Russian Revolution dismantles:   Divine-right monarchy   Church–state fusion   Imperial aristocracy   Meaning: One of Europe's oldest dynastic systems ends abruptly under war + hunger + institutional failure.   1917 — Russian Revolution The Romanov monarchy collapses. Tsar Nicholas II abdicates. The Bolsheviks seize power later that year. The Russian Empire begins its transformation into the Soviet Union. 1917 — United States Enters World War I The United States formally enters the war on the side of the Allies. American manpower and industrial production help shift the balance of the conflict. 1917 — Balfour Declaration Britain expresses support for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. The declaration becomes an important milestone in modern Middle Eastern history 1918–1948 — British Mandate Palestine Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe increases. Hebrew language revival accelerates. Some immigrants begin adopting Hebrew names. June 1918 — Soviet Oil Nationalization The Bolshevik government nationalizes the Russian oil industry. Private oil holdings in Baku and elsewhere are taken over by the state. This is one of the largest oil nationalizations in history. 1918 — Romanov Family Executed Tsar Nicholas II and members of the Romanov family are executed. The possibility of a Romanov restoration effectively ends. Stories that Grand Duchess Anastasia survived later become popular legends. 1918 — Austria-Hungary Collapses Emperor Charles I relinquishes power. The Austro-Hungarian Empire breaks apart. Successor states include: Austria Hungary Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia Territory is also transferred to: Poland Romania Italy The Habsburg monarchy ends. 1918 — Influenza Pandemic The Spanish Flu spreads worldwide. Estimated deaths range from 50 to 100 million. One of the deadliest pandemics in recorded history. November 11, 1918 — World War I Ends Armistice signed between Germany and the Allies. Fighting largely ceases on the Western Front. Aftermath of World War I Romanovs The Romanov dynasty loses power permanently. Surviving family members flee abroad. No significant political restoration occurs. Habsburgs The Habsburg monarchy ends. However, the family remains: Wealthy Internationally connected Politically active Later generations continue participating in European diplomacy and politics. Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire survives the war temporarily but is severely weakened. The empire ultimately collapses after the conflict. Jewish Communities By the end of World War I, Jewish communities remain documented throughout: Russia Austria-Hungary Germany Britain France Ottoman territories United States Networks visible in earlier centuries have evolved into: Businesses Newspapers Charities Educational institutions Political organizations *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-11" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-11" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> June 28, 1919 — Treaty of Versailles Officially ends the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers following World War I. Signed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, the same room where the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 after defeating France. The treaty imposes: Territorial losses Military restrictions Reparations The "War Guilt Clause" (Article 231) Germany loses colonies and significant territory, while its military is severely limited. Many Germans view the treaty as a national humiliation. The Treaty of Versailles becomes one of the most controversial agreements in modern history and is widely regarded as a major factor contributing to the political instability that later helped fuel the rise of Nazi Germany and World War II. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-28" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Some historians do mention the name Hall of Mirrors, but generally not because they believe it signifies deception. The room's French name is Galerie des Glaces ("Gallery of Mirrors"). It was built between 1678 and 1684 for Louis XIV at the Palace of Versailles. The mirrors were intended to symbolize: Royal power Wealth Prestige France's ability to manufacture luxury goods previously imported from Venice In the 17th century, large mirrors were extraordinarily expensive. The room was essentially a display of state power and economic strength. Historians writing about the Treaty of Versailles frequently mention that it was signed in the Hall of Mirrors because of its symbolism: 1871: German Empire proclaimed there after France's defeat. 1919: Germany forced to sign the peace treaty there after its defeat. Many historians describe the choice as: Symbolic Deliberate Humiliating for Germany Political theater Some historians use phrases such as "a calculated humiliation" or "symbolic revenge," particularly when discussing French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and the French desire to reverse the humiliation of 1871. As for the name itself sounding like deception, that is more of a modern interpretation. Historians generally do not argue that the room was named "Hall of Mirrors" to imply trickery or illusion. The name literally refers to the 357 mirrors lining the gallery. That said, writers and commentators sometimes use the name metaphorically. For example, someone examining diplomacy, propaganda, public narratives, or elite politics might observe the irony that one of the most consequential treaties in history was signed in a room called the Hall of Mirrors. That would be an interpretive or literary observation rather than a standard historical conclusion. It is worth noting that Versailles itself is often discussed by historians as a place where power, image, ceremony, and political symbolism were carefully staged. In that sense, the Hall of Mirrors was designed to project an image of power as much as it was a physical room full of mirrors. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-13" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-13" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> January 18, 1871 — Hall of Mirrors, Versailles The German Empire is proclaimed. Wilhelm I is declared German Emperor. France has just been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. German leaders celebrate their victory inside the French royal palace. June 28, 1919 — Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Germany is forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Germany has just been defeated in World War I. French leaders host the peace conference in the exact same room. Many historians view this as intentional symbolism. To the French, it was: Reversal of 1871 Restoration of national pride Historical justice To many Germans, it was: Public humiliation Revenge by the victors A reminder of defeat That is why the Hall of Mirrors is often specifically identified in history books rather than simply saying "Versailles." The symmetry is hard to miss: 1871 Germany rises in the Hall of Mirrors. 1919 Germany is humbled in the Hall of Mirrors. Whether one sees that as irony, symbolism, political theater, or something deeper, historians generally agree the location was chosen deliberately because everyone present understood what had happened there forty-eight years earlier. The room itself became part of the message. 1919 — League of Nations Created First major international organization created to prevent future wars. Predecessor to the United Nations. By this point, there are numerous identifiable Jewish institutions, organizations, philanthropic networks, religious bodies, newspapers, and political movements.   What Zevi's movement demonstrated was that long before World War I, there already existed enough family, religious, commercial, and communication connections for news and ideas to move remarkably quickly between Jewish communities spread across thousands of miles.  By 1914, those communities were far more visible, documented, organized, and politically active than they had been in the 1600s.  By the time of World War II, Jewish populations in Europe were not hidden or unknown.  Governments throughout Europe had already spent decades or centuries collecting information through:   Census records    Tax records    Birth records    Marriage records    Synagogue membership records    Residence registrations    Business licenses    School records    Assassination of Franz Ferdinand triggers World War I. Cousins George V (UK), Wilhelm II (Germany), and Nicholas II (Russia) lead opposing sides — all grandsons of Queen Victoria. 1918  → Austro-Hungarian Empire collapses. → Habsburg monarchy abolished. → German Empire falls. → Romanovs executed. Surviving nobles scatter to Switzerland, Britain, and the Vatican.   1918–1922 — Collapse of Four Empires  Collapse of: German Empire Austro-Hungarian Empire Russian Empire Ottoman Empire This is one of the biggest geopolitical resets in modern history.  1918–1920 — Spanish Flu Pandemic Roughly 675,000 U.S. deaths. More Americans died from influenza than in World War I. End of World War I: Prussia Loses Its Monarchy  The German Empire collapses. The Kaiser abdicates. Prussia becomes a "Free State" within the Weimar Republic. It remains the largest and most influential German state. Germany survives, but Prussia begins to lose autonomy.  When the Habsburg empire dissolved in, its former aristocracy didn't vanish — they rebranded as "European" nobility. Some married into the British peerage, some into banking families. Britain, emerging as the stabilizing imperial center, became the safe harbor for dispossessed continental elites. Titles might fade, but estates, trusts, and art collections quietly transferred into British custody. Fall of the Habsburgs   Collapse of the House of Habsburg Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves Central Europe fractured into new nation-states   Habsburgs and the Catholic Church   Habsburg legitimacy historically grounded in:   Catholic universalism   Papal recognition   Defender-of-the-Faith doctrine   World War I breaks:   Church-backed imperial legitimacy   Multi-ethnic religious empire model   Result:  Dynastic Catholic empire replaced by:   Secular nation-states   Ethnic borders   Bureaucratic governance  1920s – 1930s: Silent Restoration   Habsburg heirs (Otto von Habsburg, etc.) become prominent in Catholic diplomacy and Pan-European movements. Windsor's consolidate image as global imperial family — new symbolic center of monarchy. Aristocrats displaced from Central Europe marry into British nobility and finance houses. → Estates and trusts transferred westward. 1920 — Hitler Adopts the Swastika Hitler officially adopts the swastika as the symbol of the Nazi Party. The symbol had already been circulating among German and Austrian nationalist groups for decades. Hitler standardized its design and placed it at the center of Nazi propaganda, flags, armbands, and party imagery. The swastika subsequently became one of the most recognized and controversial symbols in modern history. 1920 — Treaty of Sèvres Native Boarding Schools: Government and Catholic-run institutions forcibly removed Indigenous children from their families. Widespread reports of sexual, physical, and psychological abuse.   January 10, 1921 A fire on, in the basement of the Commerce Department building damaged or destroyed the population schedules. About 25% burned outright. Another 50% sustained water and smoke damage. The Census Bureau estimated it would take two to three years to copy and salvage what remained. They never started.  1921–1926 — Osage Reign of Terror Numerous Osage people die under suspicious circumstances. Methods include: Murders Poisonings Shootings Bombings The victims are often individuals whose oil headrights could be inherited by others 1921 — Tulsa Race Massacre A white mob destroys Tulsa's Greenwood District ("Black Wall Street"). Results include: Approximately 35 blocks destroyed More than 1,000 homes burned Up to 300 deaths estimated One of the most significant episodes of racial violence in American history. Witnesses reported aircraft overhead, and some accounts described incendiary materials being dropped from the air. 1921 — Guardianship System The federal government frequently requires many Osage to have court-appointed white guardians to manage their money. The system becomes notorious for corruption and exploitation. Many historians regard it as a major abuse of federal Indian policy. 1921 — Fire Damages 1890 Census Records Remaining 1890 Census schedules suffer additional damage in a government building fire in Washington, D.C. The already-fragmented census becomes even more difficult to preserve. 1921 — Kingdom of Iraq Created Britain establishes the Kingdom of Iraq following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Part of the broader post-World War I restructuring of the Middle East. 1922 — Soviet Union Established The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is formally created. Becomes one of the dominant powers of the twentieth century. 1923 — Treaty of Lausanne Defines the modern international boundaries of Türkiye. Replaces the earlier Treaty of Sèvres. A major milestone in post-Ottoman state formation. 1923 — Republic of Türkiye Established The Republic of Türkiye is formally proclaimed under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Marks the end of the Ottoman era and the beginning of the modern Turkish state. 1923 — O'Shaughnessy Dam Completed The O'Shaughnessy Dam is completed. Hetch Hetchy Valley is flooded to create a reservoir. The project becomes one of California's most important water systems. Historical Significance The Hetch Hetchy controversy is often described as the event that launched the modern American environmental movement. It helped define the difference between: Conservation Wise use of natural resources and Preservation  -Protecting natural landscapes from development 1924 — Johnson-Reed Immigration Act Establishes strict immigration quotas. Greatly reduces immigration from: Southern Europe Eastern Europe Asia One of the most significant immigration laws in American history 1925–1926 — Federal Investigation Osage Local investigations struggle to solve the murders. The newly organized federal Bureau of Investigation becomes involved. 1925 — Scopes Trial Tennessee teacher John T. Scopes prosecuted for teaching evolution. Becomes a national debate over science, religion, and education 1926 — Osage Murder Conspiracy Exposed Investigators uncover a conspiracy led by rancher: William King Hale Several murders were committed to obtain Osage oil wealth through inheritance. 1927 — The Jazz Singer   -First feature-length "talkie" with synchronized spoken dialogue. Marks the transition from silent films to sound films and helps launch the modern Hollywood era. The film starred Al Jolson and included blackface musical performances, reflecting minstrel-show traditions that were common in American entertainment at the time but are now widely viewed as racist and controversial. 1927 — Buck v. Bell The U.S. Supreme Court upholds compulsory sterilization laws. Becomes one of the most controversial decisions in American legal history. Supports expansion of eugenics policies throughout the United States. 1927–1938 — Nuremberg Nazi Party Rallies Nuremberg becomes the symbolic center of Nazi mass political rallies. Massive propaganda events designed to demonstrate party unity and power. October 2, 1928 — Opus Dei Founded Opus Dei founded in Madrid by Josemaría Escrivá. Key milestones: 1947 — Receives first Vatican approval 1982 — Elevated to a Personal Prelature by the Vatican 1929 — Stock Market Crash Massive collapse in stock prices. Triggers the Great Depression. One of the most important economic events of the twentieth century. 1930 — Bank for International Settlements (BIS) January 20, 1930 — Hague Conference approves creation of the BIS. May 17, 1930 — BIS begins operations in Basel, Switzerland. Created to administer German reparations following World War I. Becomes the world's first major institution devoted to central-bank cooperation.   1930s — Great Depression Global economic collapse spreads across much of the world. Results include: Mass unemployment Bank failures Business failures Migration Political instability 1930s — U.S. Vagrancy Raids Police departments conduct large-scale sweeps targeting individuals labeled: Vagrants Transients Hobos Loiterers Many are detained despite not being accused of serious crimes. People are often sent to: Labor camps Road camps County jails Work farms The policy reflects broader Depression-era efforts to control visible poverty. 1930s–1970s — Home Children Programs More than 100,000 children are relocated from Britain to: Canada Australia New Zealand South Africa Many later report abuse, exploitation, neglect, and harsh labor conditions. The program becomes one of the most controversial child migration programs in modern history 1930s–1970s — Redlining Banks, insurers, and government agencies restrict lending in Black neighborhoods. Contributes to long-term wealth and housing disparities. 1931 — Hoover Dam Construction Begins One of the largest engineering projects in American history. Designed to: Control the Colorado River Generate electricity Provide water storage 1932 — Saudi Arabia Established The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is formally established under Ibn Saud. A major development in modern Middle Eastern history. 1932–1933 — Holodomor Famine occurs in Soviet Ukraine during Stalin's collectivization policies. Millions die. The event remains central to debates regarding: State power Historical memory Famine policy Genocide classification 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study The United States Public Health Service studies Black men with syphilis in Alabama. Participants are not fully informed of the study's purpose. Even after penicillin becomes available, treatment is withheld from many participants. 1933 — Adolf Hitler Comes to Power Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany. The Nazi regime begins consolidating power. 1933–1945 — Nazi Era and Holocaust Jewish immigration to Palestine increases as Jews flee Germany and Eastern Europe. Millions who might otherwise have emigrated are murdered in the Holocaust. 1933 — Glass-Steagall Act Major U.S. banking reform legislation. Separates commercial and investment banking. Becomes a cornerstone of Depression-era financial regulation. 1933 — Destruction of Remaining 1890 Census Records Remaining portions of the 1890 Census are authorized for destruction. One of the greatest record losses in American history. 1933 — Federal Expansion of Record Systems During the Great Depression, the federal government expands significantly. Recordkeeping becomes increasingly: Centralized Standardized Bureaucratic Identity becomes more dependent on government documentation. 1933–1935 — Nazi Destruction of Prussian Autonomy Hitler dismantles Prussia's independent government structures. Prussia remains in name but loses meaningful political autonomy. A major step in Nazi centralization of power. 1933–1942 — Grand Coulee Dam Largest concrete structure in North America at the time. Provides: Hydroelectric power Irrigation Economic development Throughout the Pacific Northwest. 1935 — Nuremberg Laws Nazi Germany enacts racial laws removing citizenship and legal protections from German Jews. One of the key legal foundations of later persecution and the Holocaust. 1935 — Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) The Bureau of Investigation is reorganized and renamed the FBI. Becomes the primary federal law-enforcement and domestic intelligence agency of the United States. 1935–1945 — Nazi Persecution of Roma Roma populations throughout Nazi-controlled territories face: Discrimination Deportation Imprisonment Mass murder Hundreds of thousands are killed during the Holocaust. 1935 — Social Security Act Creates the Social Security system. Millions of Americans begin obtaining formal identity documentation for benefits and employment purposes. 1936 — BIS Immunities Expanded The Hague Convention expands legal protections and immunities associated with the BIS and participating central banks. November 1936 — Operation Guido Nazi Germany expands support for Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. Represents increasing German involvement in Spain before World War II. 1936 — Hoover Dam Completed One of the most famous engineering projects in American history. Provides: Water Flood control Electricity For much of the American Southwest. 1936–1939 — Spanish Civil War Conflict between Republican and Nationalist forces in Spain. Serves as a precursor to World War II. Foreign powers including Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union become involved. 1936 — First National Archives Building Opens Federal records begin centralized preservation. Major turning point for historical and genealogical research. Firebombing (incendiary bombing) as a military strategy. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ebfbec21-a217-4d82-bc9e-631bbb509314-8" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ebfbec21-a217-4d82-bc9e-631bbb509314-8" data-testid= "conversation-turn-18" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1937–1938 — Japanese forces conduct large-scale bombing of Chinese cities, including Wuhan, Shanghai, and later Chongqing during the Second Sino-Japanese War. These campaigns included incendiary attacks against urban areas. 1943–1945 — Allied forces use large-scale incendiary bombing against German cities. February 13–15, 1945 — Bombing of Dresden, which created a massive firestorm. March 1945 onward — U.S. firebombing campaign against Japanese cities, most notably Tokyo. Timeline 1937 — Second Sino-Japanese War begins 1938 — Battle and bombing of Wuhan 1942 — Doolittle Raid 1944 — Operation Matterhorn begins June 15, 1944 — First B-29 raid on Japan from China February 1945 — Dresden bombing March 1945 — Tokyo firebombing campaign escalates The B29 timeline 1937–1938 — Japan bombs Chinese cities including Wuhan. 1940–1943 — B-29 developed and tested. 1944 — B-29s deployed to India and China under Operation Matterhorn. June 15, 1944 — First B-29 raid on Japan from Chinese bases. 1944–1945 — China serves as the launch platform for strategic bombing of Japan. 1945 — Mariana Islands bases largely replace China because they are far more practical. February 1945 — Dresden bombing 1950–1953 — B-29s serve again in the Korean War. 1937 — Bonneville Dam  -Improves navigation and power generation on the Columbia River. Bonneville Dam 1938 — Nuclear Fission Discovered Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann demonstrate nuclear fission. Foundation of atomic energy and nuclear weapons. 1938: Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich — What Actually Happened  -In June 1938, the Nazi regime carried out one of its largest pre-war mass arrests. The targets were:  Homeless individuals  Beggars  People labeled "work-shy" (unwilling/unable to work)  Alcoholics  People with perceived mental illness or "deviant" behavior  Anyone the regime considered "socially disruptive"  Key facts:  10,000+ people were rounded up within days.  They were sent to concentration camps including Dachau, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen.  Many were not Jewish and had committed no crimes.  This was framed publicly as a "clean-up" for public safety before major Nazi events.  The arrests created the administrative blueprint for later mass round-ups.  The critical point: The state recast poverty as criminality. Once a person was defined as a "social problem," the state claimed the right to remove them from public life.   1939–1975 — Rule of Francisco Franco Initially, children were taken from women associated with the defeated Republican side after the Spanish Civil War. Over time, the practice expanded into a broader network involving some hospitals, religious institutions, doctors, and adoption intermediaries. Estimates Approximately 300,000 children are often cited in media and advocacy discussions as a possible upper-end estimate of babies allegedly taken or improperly adopted between the 1940s and the 1990s. Historians generally agree that thousands of cases occurred, but the exact number remains disputed because records are incomplete, altered, or missing. 1939 — Germany invades Poland 1939 – 1945: WWII — The Second Purge   Axis vs. Allies: again, cousins at war.   Many Habsburgs oppose Hitler, flee to Britain or the U.S.   September 20, 1940, Tesla announced that he was ready to divulge the secret of his "Teleforce" and "Death Ray", and his invisible "Chinese Wall of Defense" to protect the United States. 1940 — Plutonium first produced and identified at the University of California, Berkeley 1940s–1970s — Forced Sterilizations Some Black women are subjected to involuntary or coerced sterilization procedures. Part of broader eugenics programs operating in multiple states. 1941 — Chemical proof of element 94 completed. The element is named plutonium. 1941 — Lookout Mountain Facility Constructed Originally built as a World War II air defense and flight-control center overlooking Los Angeles. 1941 — Pearl Harbor Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. United States enters World War II. 1942–1945 — Manhattan Project begins. 1942 — Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Created Established during World War II under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Directed by William J. Donovan, known as "Wild Bill" Donovan. America's first large-scale foreign intelligence and special operations organization. Conducted espionage, sabotage, resistance support, psychological warfare, and intelligence gathering behind enemy lines. 1942–1945 — Tennessee Valley Authority Expansion Major electrification and flood-control projects. Brings power to rural communities. Tennessee Valley Authority 1942 — Chicago Pile-1  -First controlled nuclear chain reaction. 1943 — Hanford Site Established Built in Washington State. Produced plutonium for the first atomic weapons. Became one of the most contaminated nuclear sites in the United States. Hanford Site January 4, 1943—  Tesla's faithful assistant, George Scherff, visited Tesla for the last time, Tesla was found deceased in his hotel room on the morning of January 8. 1943. He had passed away between those four days since Scherff's visit." The article continued, "Following Tesla's death the United States Office of Alien Property, under the instructions of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, confiscated all of Tesla's papers and property. This was an interesting maneuver considering that Tesla was a United States citizen."  The significance of this benign description of Tesla's inventions and his last days has a direct relationship to the previously unknown claims of Otto Skorzeny. As Skorzeny described (to Berman) in detail his involvement with George H. W. Bush (George H. Scherff, Jr.) in organizing the CIA by absorbing Nazi S.S. agents," he intimated that it was Reinhard Gehlen and himself who murdered Nikola Tesla on January 6, 1943 by strangulation/suffocation. January 7, 1943 Tesla was dead and penniless in a cheap hotel in New York City. Tesla's possessions were literally seized by the government, J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI. Allegedly, Tesla's possessions included trunks which held his papers were turned over to U.S. Custodian of Alien Property for safekeeping.  January 9, 1943 Federal alien control agents went to the hotel and seized all the remaining property of Tesla, consisting of about two truckloads of materials. They sealed all articles and transferred them to the Manhattan Storage and Warehouse Co., New York. The FBI notified the Department of Justice, Offices of Vice-President Wallace, Office of Scientific Research, and Military Intelligence Division about the seizure of the equipment, experiments, and research of Nikola Tesla. The belief persists that the FBI and U.S. Government still possess and secret valuable working papers of Nikola Tesla.  It is also generally believed that the Soviet Union's interest in Tesla's "Death Ray" and "Wireless Transmission of Electrical Current", and Tesla's research ideals intensified after the U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in 1945.   The Soviets took Tesla's research and electromagnetic radiation (EMR) seriously, while the U.S. toyed with Tesla's ideas as the "mad scientist" science fiction ramblings until the end of WWII when the Knights of the Black Sun used Tesla Technologies as another bargaining chip with Allies Forces. Tesla's possessions were eventually inherited by his nephew, Kosanovich, and housed at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Tesla Magnifying Transmitter (TMT): THE MOSCOW SIGNAL 1943 to 1969 Fort Detrick (ˈ d iː t r ɪ k) is a United States Army Futures Command installation located in Frederick, Maryland. Fort Detrick was the center of the U.S. biological weapons program from 1943 to 1969. Since the discontinuation of that program, it has hosted most elements of the United States biological defense program.   1944 — Liquidation of the Roma camp at Auschwitz 1944 — Bretton Woods Agreement  -Creates postwar financial order. 1944–1945—  Operation Matterhorn The United States based B-29 Superfortress bombers in western China. The bombers flew from airfields around Chengdu and India. Their targets were the Japanese home islands and Japanese-controlled territories. Fuel, bombs, and supplies had to be flown over the Himalayas ("The Hump"), making the operation extremely difficult. June 6, 1944 — D-Day (Normandy Landings) Allied forces launch the largest amphibious invasion in history during World War II. More than 150,000 American, British, Canadian, and Allied troops land on the beaches of Normandy, France. Opens the long-awaited Western Front against Nazi Germany. Marks the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from German occupation. The five main landing beaches were: Utah Beach Omaha Beach Gold Beach Juno Beach Sword Beach D-Day was part of: Operation Overlord The overall Allied campaign to invade and liberate German-occupied France. Key figures included: Dwight D. Eisenhower Bernard Montgomery Omar Bradley June 15, 1944— First B-29 Raid on Japan B-29s took off from bases in China and bombed the steel works at Yawata.  -This was the first U.S. bombing raid on the Japanese home islands since the Doolittle Raid. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> August 25, 1944 — Liberation of Paris Less than three months after D-Day, Allied forces liberate Paris. May 8, 1945 — Victory in Europe (VE Day) Nazi Germany surrenders. World War II ends in Europe. 1945–1946 — Nuremberg Trials Allied powers prosecute major Nazi leaders, establishing modern principles for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and international justice. July 16, 1945 — Trinity Test uses a plutonium device. August 9, 1945 — Plutonium bomb Fat Man detonated over Nagasaki, Japan. 1945 — United Nations Founded 1945 — Atomic Bomb  -Beginning of the nuclear age. Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki February 13–15, 1945 — Bombing of Dresden  -Allied bombers attack Dresden, Germany, creating massive firestorms that destroy much of the city. The bombing becomes one of the most debated military actions of World War II and a lasting symbol of the destructive power of aerial warfare. August 9, 1945 — The plutonium bomb Fat Man is detonated over Nagasaki. World War II Ends: Prussia Is Divided   -Eastern Prussia is carved up between Poland and the Soviet Union. Millions of ethnic Germans are expelled westward. Western Prussian provinces became states within occupied Germany. The Allied powers view Prussia as too militaristic to survive.  1945 and 1948, the Nazis began infiltrating all world governments.  They resolved to bring about a Fourth Reich in the United States, and gave this project the code name of Omega. – James Rink  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Date: 9 June 1953 This is essentially the beginning of MKUltra. MKUltra was formally authorized by CIA Director Allen Dulles in April 1953. LSD is the focus The memo explicitly states the project concerns the study of LSD. It also mentions studying drugs related to LSD and substances that might counteract its effects ("LSD antagonists"). Use of a "cut-out" The phrase "cut-out and cover" is intelligence terminology. It means an intermediary organization was being used to hide CIA involvement. Philanthropic grant disguise The money was apparently routed as a medical-research grant rather than directly from the CIA. Hospital involvement The final paragraph suggests hospital personnel had Top Secret clearances and knew the actual purpose of the project 1945–1953 — Early CIA and Military Mind-Control Research Following World War II, U.S. intelligence agencies became concerned that foreign governments had developed advanced interrogation and psychological conditioning techniques. Programs including Project BLUEBIRD (1950) and Project ARTICHOKE (1951) explored: Hypnosis Drug-assisted interrogation Isolation Psychological manipulation Memory alteration research These programs became the foundation for later CIA behavioral experiments. 1953 — MK-Ultra Authorized CIA Director Allen Dulles formally approves Project MKUltra. The program funded research at: Universities Hospitals Prisons Military facilities Private research institutions Research involved: LSD and other psychoactive drugs Hypnosis Sensory deprivation Sleep disruption Electroshock studies Behavioral conditioning Many subjects were not fully informed they were participating. 1953–1964 — Expansion of Human Experimentation MKUltra grows into dozens of subprojects across the United States and Canada. Documented activities included: Unwitting drug administration Psychological stress experiments Interrogation research Studies of suggestibility and compliance Experiments involving vulnerable populations Subjects sometimes included: Prisoners Psychiatric patients Hospital patients Students Military personnel 1950s–1960s — Canadian Experiments At Allan Memorial Institute in Montreal, psychiatrist Donald Ewen Cameron conducted controversial CIA-funded experiments. Patients were subjected to: Drug-induced states Prolonged sleep treatments Repetitive recorded messages ("psychic driving") Electroconvulsive therapy Many patients later reported severe psychological injury. 1950s–1970s — Allegations Involving Children Researchers and survivors have alleged that some intelligence-connected behavioral experiments involved minors. What is documented: Children were sometimes used in broader Cold War-era medical and psychological research programs. Some institutionalized children participated in government-funded studies. Records confirm experimentation on vulnerable populations. What remains disputed: Claims of organized CIA child mind-control programs. Allegations of systematic sexual abuse directed by MKUltra. Claims linking specific child-abuse networks directly to CIA operations. Many records were destroyed, making some allegations difficult to verify. 1973 — MKUltra Records Destroyed CIA Director Richard Helms orders destruction of most MKUltra records. As a result: Large portions of the program remain unknown. Surviving evidence comes from financial records, scattered files, and later investigations. 1975 — Church Committee Investigation The United States Senate Church Committee begins investigating intelligence-agency abuses. Investigators uncover evidence of: Illegal surveillance Domestic intelligence activities Unwitting human experimentation The inquiry brings MKUltra to public attention. 1977 — Congressional Hearings Reveal More Details Further hearings reveal: CIA-funded research at numerous institutions. Use of LSD on unwitting subjects. Experiments conducted without informed consent. The public learns far more about the scope of MKUltra than previously known. Timeline Version 1950–1951 — Project BLUEBIRD and ARTICHOKE explore interrogation, hypnosis, and behavioral control techniques. 1953 — CIA launches MKUltra to study mind control, drugs, hypnosis, and behavioral manipulation. 1953–1964 — MKUltra expands through universities, hospitals, prisons, and research institutions. 1950s–1960s — CIA-funded experiments at Montreal's Allan Memorial Institute subject patients to extreme psychological treatments. 1950s–1970s — Experiments involve vulnerable populations; allegations of child involvement and abuse remain controversial and only partially documented. 1973 — CIA Director Richard Helms orders destruction of most MKUltra records. 1975–1977 — Congressional investigations expose unwitting human experimentation and bring MKUltra into public view. 1945:  The Bretton Woods agreement dictated the assets in the Collateral Accounts were to be managed by the Trillenium Trilateral Tripartite Commission, representing the U.S.A., the United Kingdom and France.  The CIA was tasked with protecting the Collateral Accounts, but quickly began stealing the money.  The TTTC was disbanded in 1995 because it was so corrupt.  May 1945 — Operation Paperclip   1945–1946 — Operation Overcast transitions into Operation Paperclip. 1945–1959 — Thousands of German scientists, engineers, and technicians are brought to the United States. Notable figure: Wernher von Braun.   1946–  Since 1946, the U.S. has given 76 transnational non-governmental organizations immunities, privileges, and tax exemptions under the BIS umbrella.  1946–1958 — Marshall Islands Nuclear Test Program United States conducts 67 nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands. Tests occur primarily at: Bikini Atoll Enewetak Atoll 1947 — CIA Created  -Beginning of the modern intelligence era. Central Intelligence Agency 1947 — Lookout Mountain Laboratory Established The U.S. Air Force establishes a secret motion-picture and photographic unit at the site. Created to document atomic weapons testing and other military programs. Becomes one of the most important Cold War film-production facilities in the United States. 1947 — National Security Act Creates the modern national security structure. Establishes the Central Intelligence Agency and modern Department of Defense. 1947 — Truman Doctrine  -Formal beginning of U.S. Cold War containment policy. 1947 — Prussia Is Officially Abolished   -The Allied Control Council formally dissolved Prussia. No modern nation carries its name. Its lands are now divided between Germany, Poland, and Russia. Prussia disappears from the map but survives as cultural memory, including in the families of scientists who emigrated to the United States.  1947 — Transistor Invented  -Foundation of modern electronics. 1947 – 1950— Royal Consolidation & Reemergence   1947: Princess Elizabeth marries Philip Mountbatten (born Prince of Greece and Denmark, from the Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg line — yet another German branch). → Germanic bloodline returns to the British throne under another new name. 1950: Post-imperial Europe stabilizes: → The Windsors stand as heirs of the old continental web — a re-centered Habsburg-Saxe lineage wearing a British crown.   1948 — Air Force and Atomic Energy Commission Take Control Lookout Mountain Facility is expanded and remodeled into a highly secure film studio and laboratory. Used extensively to document nuclear weapons tests in Nevada and the Pacific 1948 — State of Israel established 1948–1960s — Hebraization of Names in Israel Many immigrants, especially Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe, adopt Hebrew names and surnames. The practice becomes common among government officials, military leaders, educators, and public figures. Prominent examples include David Grün becoming David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Shertok becoming Moshe Sharett, and Golda Mabovitch becoming Golda Meir. 1948 — General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)  -Predecessor to the WTO. 1948 — Universal Declaration of Human Rights Important after: Holocaust WWII Genocide discussions 1949 — NATO Founded The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is established. Founding members include: United States Canada United Kingdom France Belgium Netherlands Luxembourg Italy Portugal Denmark Norway Iceland Becomes the primary Western military alliance during the Cold War. 1949 — Department of Defense Created The National Military Establishment is renamed the Department of Defense (DoD). Brings together: U.S. Army U.S. Navy U.S. Air Force Creates a more centralized military command structure. Reflects the transition from wartime mobilization to permanent Cold War readiness. 1949 — Chinese Communist Revolution Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China. One of the most significant geopolitical events of the twentieth century. August 29, 1949 — First Soviet Atomic Bomb The Soviet Union successfully detonates its first atomic bomb. The American nuclear monopoly ends. The nuclear arms race begins. 1949–1989 — The Polygon (Semipalatinsk Test Site) The Soviet Union establishes its primary nuclear testing complex in Kazakhstan. Approximately: 456 nuclear tests conducted Above-ground and underground detonations Significant long-term radiation exposure to local populations One of the largest nuclear testing programs in history. 1949–1950 — Operation Magic Carpet Approximately 49,000 Yemenite Jews are airlifted from Yemen and Aden to Israel. One of the largest humanitarian airlift operations of the era. 1948–1954 — Yemenite Children Affair Hundreds of Yemenite immigrant families report that infants and young children disappeared from hospitals, camps, and medical facilities. Parents were frequently told the children had died but often received no body, death certificate, or burial information. The affair remains one of the most disputed and controversial issues in Israeli history. 1950–1953 — Korean War First major armed conflict of the Cold War. United Nations forces led by the United States fight North Korean and Chinese forces. Results include: Millions of casualties Permanent division of Korea Expansion of Cold War military alliances 1950s — Peak Institutionalization in the United States More than 550,000 people are confined in state psychiatric hospitals. Common features include: Forced institutionalization Overcrowding Limited due process protections Labor performed by patients Eugenics-era sterilization programs The system reaches its largest size during the decade. 1950–2002 — United States Catholic Clergy Abuse Crisis According to the 2004 John Jay Report, approximately 4,392 Catholic priests in the United States were accused of sexually abusing minors. Investigations reveal decades of abuse allegations and institutional concealment across multiple dioceses. The scandal later becomes part of a wider international crisis involving Catholic institutions. 1951 — First Electricity Produced from Nuclear Power An experimental reactor in Idaho produces usable electricity. Marks the beginning of civilian nuclear power generation. 1951–1992 — Nevada Test Site More than 900 nuclear tests are conducted in Nevada. Includes: Atmospheric detonations Underground detonations The site becomes central to Cold War weapons development. Radiation exposure among "downwind" populations remains controversial. 1952–1960s — Moscow Signal The Soviet Union directs low-level microwave transmissions at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. The phenomenon becomes known as the "Moscow Signal." The purpose of the transmissions remains debated. The incident contributes to Cold War concerns regarding electromagnetic radiation, surveillance, and intelligence operations. 1950s–1960s — Israel Ringworm Radiation Treatments Thousands of children, primarily from immigrant families from North Africa and the Middle East, receive radiation treatments for scalp ringworm. The episode later becomes controversial due to allegations regarding radiation dosage, informed consent, long-term health effects, and government oversight. 1950s–1960s — Ireland Magdalene Laundries Church-run institutions confine thousands of girls and women. Many report: Forced labor Physical abuse Social isolation Family separation The institutions later become the subject of government investigations and public apologies 1950s–1960s — Civil Rights Era Violence Civil-rights activists face: Murders Bombings Police violence Intimidation Examples include: Birmingham church bombing (1963) Murder of Medgar Evers (1963) Freedom Summer murders (1964) 1952 — First U.S. Hydrogen Bomb  -Thermonuclear era begins. Ivy Mike 1952 — Rocky Flats Plant Opens Located near Denver, Colorado. Manufactured plutonium triggers ("pits") for U.S. nuclear weapons. One of the most important weapons-production sites in the country. Rocky Flats Plant 1953 — MK-Ultra Authorized CIA mind-control and behavioral research program. Included drug experiments, hypnosis, sensory deprivation, and interrogation studies. Project MKUltra 1954 — Soviet Union (First Nuclear Power Station)  -Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant Located near Moscow. First nuclear power plant in the world to supply electricity to a power grid. Began operation on June 27, 1954. Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant 1955:  President Eisenhower put together an American version of the SSP using technology given to the U.S. by the Nazis.  The administration entered into joint ventures with the Nazis in the hopes of spying on them. 1955 — Polio Vaccine  -Major public health milestone 1955 — Murder of Emmett Till Fourteen-year-old Emmett Till is kidnapped and murdered in Mississippi. The case becomes a major catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement. Vietnam  U.S. involvement  1955 — Common start date (Military Assistance Advisory Group expansion and support of South Vietnam). 1965 — Major U.S. combat troop deployment begins. 1973 — U.S. combat involvement officially ends after the Paris Peace Accords.   1955–1975 — Full conflict April 30, 1975 — Fall of Saigon and reunification under North Vietnam. 1956 — United Kingdom Calder Hall Opened October 17, 1956. First nuclear power station in the world built on an industrial scale. Produced both electricity and plutonium. Often called the world's first commercial nuclear power station. Calder Hall 1956 1954 — Castle Bravo Largest U.S. nuclear test. Far larger than expected. Radioactive fallout spreads across the Pacific. Castle Bravo Brown v. Board of Education  -School segregation ruling. Brown v. Board of Education. The U.S. government aggressively inserted religious language into public life "Under God" added to the Pledge (1954)  "In God We Trust" becomes the official national motto (1956)  Motto printed on all paper currency   1956 — Interstate Highway System  =One of the largest infrastructure projects in history. 1956 — COINTELPRO Begins FBI counterintelligence program established. Targets a variety of political organizations and activists. Later becomes highly controversial. COINTELPRO 1957 — Rocky Flats Fire  -Major plutonium contamination incident. December 2, 1957 — Shippingport Atomic Power Station First full-scale commercial nuclear power plant in the United States. Major milestone in civilian nuclear energy. Shippingport Atomic Power Station 1958— President Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.  It's leader was a Project Paperclip rocket scientist named Wernher von Braun.  NASA was established in 1958 for two purposes.  The first was to deceive the public by making it appear that space exploration was at a primitive stage; the second was to channel billions into the real space program.  The United States actually had joint space ventures with the Soviet Union, which were called Solar Warden and Radiant Guardian.  France had a secret space program as well.  While von Braun helped the U.S. government pretend that rockets were the only way to launch craft into outer space, his countrymen were busy colonizing the galaxy.  February 7, 1958— DARPA Established as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) by the U.S. Department of Defense. Created in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 Launch in October 1957. 1972 — Renamed DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). Briefly reverted to ARPA (1993–1996). 1996–present — Again known as Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). 1958 — Integrated Circuit Invented  -Foundation of computers. 1960s— the Antarctic Germans built a second Antarctic base.  Task groups were created to expand out into the solar system, and bases were built on the Ceres planetoid, moons around Saturn, the Kuiper Belt, and the Oort Cloud.  The Germans would even travel back in time 400 years to settle planets all over the Milky Way galaxy.  Over three billion people now live off-world under various German SSP groups, protected by the Nacht Waffen—the Dark Fleet. – James Rink  1960s–1980s – Canada -Duplessis Orphans: Thousands of children falsely labeled as mentally ill were institutionalized and abused. The Catholic Church and Quebec government were complicit.   1961: The USSR passed laws imposing up to 2 years of forced labor for "parasitism." Thousands were sent to:  remote labor colonies  interior deportations  psychiatric hospitals  Famous example: Joseph Brodsky, the poet, was arrested and declared a "social parasite" for doing freelance creative work.  1962, the CIA discovered the Moscow signal bombarding the U.S. Embassy. The CIA bought in an outside consultant, Dr. Milton Zaret, and code-named the investigation "Project Pandora". Dr. Zaret found the Moscow signal was composed of several different frequencies, which was directed straight at the Ambassador's office. The Moscow signal remained secret for a decade.  Monkeys were brought into the embassy and exposed to the Moscow signal. The monkeys developed blood composition anomalies and unusual chromosome counts. Embassy personnel were not informed of the Moscow signal or its harmful effects until about 1972.  Stoltita, a major Soviet newspaper, reported that Victor Sedletsky, a scientist from Kiev, claimed that the practical testing of "new kind[s] of weapons based on the impact of certain frequencies on the human body" occurred back in 1965.   The U.S. government began to examine the affects of the Moscow signal. The job was turned over to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). DARPA is now developing electromagnetic weaponry. The man in charge of the DARPA program, Dr. Jack Verona was alleged to be so important and so secretive that he didn't even return President GHW Bush's telephone calls.  Jack Verona, The Raven, was listed as a defense witness in People v. Flenaugh.[20]Dr. Verona was the head of the DIA's Scientific and Technical Intelligence Directorate, who simultaneously ran a DIA mind-control program called "Sleeping Beauty" that dealt with the offensive use of microwave weapons. 1962 — Cuban Missile Crisis  -Closest the Cold War came to nuclear war. 1963 — Glen Canyon Dam Completed Creates Lake Powell. One of the most controversial dam projects in U.S. history. Glen Canyon Dam   1964 — Civil Rights Act  -Landmark federal legislation 1965 — Voting Rights Act  -Major voting-rights protection 1969 — Rocky Flats Fire One of the most serious industrial nuclear accidents in U.S. history. Large plutonium release concerns. ARPANET -Precursor to the Internet. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-11" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-11" data-testid= "conversation-turn-24" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> July 20, 1969— Moon Landing  -Apollo 11 Moon Landing  -Astronauts: Neil Armstrong Buzz Aldrin land the lunar module Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle on the Moon First Moonwalk July 20, 1969 (UTC)  -Neil Armstrong becomes the first human to walk on the Moon. His famous words:  "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."  Buzz Aldrin follows shortly afterward. Return to Earth July 24, 1969  -Apollo 11 safely splashes down in the Pacific Ocean. Timeline Entry July 20, 1969 — First Human Landing on the Moon  -Apollo 11 lands on the Moon. Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the lunar surface, followed by Buzz Aldrin. The mission marks a major milestone in the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Companion Space Timeline 1957 — Sputnik 1 launched by the Soviet Union 1961 — Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space 1962 — John Glenn orbits Earth 1969 — Apollo 11 Moon Landing 1972 — Apollo 17 1981 — First Space Shuttle Columbia flight 1998 — Construction begins on the International Space Station 2022 — Artemis I launched July 20, 1969 — Apollo 11 lands on the Moon; Neil Armstrong becomes the first human to walk on the lunar surface. 1970s 1971–Present — War on Drugs Controversies Critics argue that drug enforcement policies disproportionately affect Black communities. Issues include: Sentencing disparities Mass incarceration Police practices 1971 — Intel 4004 First commercial microprocessor. Marks the beginning of the microprocessor revolution that powers modern computers and electronics.  1971 — End of Bretton Woods The United States suspends dollar convertibility into gold. The post-World War II monetary system effectively ends. Currencies increasingly float against one another. One of the most significant financial events of the twentieth century.  August 15, 1971 — Nixon Ends Gold Convertibility Richard Nixon announces that foreign governments can no longer exchange dollars for gold. The U.S. dollar becomes a purely fiat currency. Marks a major turning point in global finance.  February 8, 1971 — Nasdaq Opens NASDAQ Composite begins operation as the world's first electronic stock market. Helps transform global securities trading through computerized systems.  1971 — British Withdrawal from the Gulf Britain ends its treaty obligations in the Persian Gulf. Bahrain and Qatar become independent. The UAE is formed. Many monarchies, borders, and legal frameworks established during the British period remain in place.  1972 — Watergate Break-In Burglars connected to President Nixon's re-election campaign break into Democratic National Committee offices. The scandal eventually leads to congressional investigations and political crisis.  1973 — Oil Crisis Arab oil producers impose an embargo following the Arab-Israeli War. Fuel shortages and inflation affect much of the Western world. Energy security becomes a major geopolitical issue.  1973 — MKUltra Records Destroyed CIA Director Richard Helms orders destruction of many MKUltra files. Most surviving information comes from records that escaped destruction and later congressional investigations.  1973 — Roe v. Wade The U.S. Supreme Court recognizes a constitutional right to abortion. One of the most influential and controversial court decisions in modern American history.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-36" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1975–1979 — Khmer Rouge Rule and Cambodian Genocide The Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot seizes control of Cambodia. Cities are emptied, private property abolished, and millions forced into labor camps. An estimated 1.5–2 million people die from execution, starvation, disease, and forced labor. One of the deadliest political regimes of the twentieth century. 1975–1977 — Church Committee Congressional investigations expose intelligence and surveillance abuses by U.S. government agencies. Public attention focuses on CIA, FBI, NSA, and intelligence operations.  1975 — Fall of Saigon The Vietnam War ends with the collapse of South Vietnam. Large refugee movements follow throughout Southeast Asia.  1975 — Operation Babylift During the final days of the Vietnam War, thousands of Vietnamese children are evacuated from South Vietnam and adopted abroad. The operation remains debated because of issues involving identity, documentation, and family separation.  1976–1983 — Argentina's Dirty War Military dictatorship conducts a campaign against suspected political opponents. Thousands disappear.  1977 — Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo Founded Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo begins searching for children taken from political prisoners during Argentina's military dictatorship. DNA testing later helps identify many of the stolen children.  1977 — Alex Haley's Roots Roots: The Saga of an American Family is published. Sparks enormous public interest in genealogy throughout the United States. Particularly influential in African American family-history research.  1977 — Voyager Program Launches Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 begin their missions. Become the longest-operating spacecraft in history.  1978 — Camp David Accords Peace agreement framework negotiated between Egypt and Israel with U.S. mediation. Major milestone in Middle Eastern diplomacy.  1979 — Three Mile Island Accident Most serious commercial nuclear power accident in U.S. history. Raises public concern about nuclear energy and reactor safety.  1979 — Iranian Revolution Overthrows the Shah of Iran. Establishes the Islamic Republic. One of the most consequential geopolitical events of the late twentieth century.  1979 — Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan Soviet forces enter Afghanistan. Begins a decade-long conflict with global Cold War implications.  1979 — Smallpox Eradicated Smallpox officially declared eradicated worldwide. First human disease eliminated through coordinated global vaccination efforts.  1980s 1980s – United States Franklin Scandal Allegations emerge that boys connected to Nebraska's Boys Town and other institutions were trafficked to powerful individuals. Claims involve politicians, businessmen, and intelligence-linked figures. Multiple investigations occur. The allegations remain highly controversial and disputed. Questions regarding witness credibility, destroyed evidence, and institutional accountability continue to generate debate. 1980 — Mount St. Helens Eruption Largest volcanic eruption in modern U.S. history. Destroyed forests, roads, bridges, and communities throughout parts of Washington State. Fifty-seven people were killed. 1980–1988 — Iran–Iraq War One of the deadliest conflicts of the late twentieth century. Over one million casualties are estimated. Included trench warfare, missile attacks, and chemical weapons use. Helped reshape Middle Eastern geopolitics. 1981 — First Reported AIDS Cases Doctors report unusual illnesses among young men in the United States. Marks the beginning of the AIDS epidemic. Becomes one of the most significant public health crises of the twentieth century. 1981 — IBM Personal Computer IBM introduces the IBM PC. Helps standardize personal computing. Accelerates the spread of computers into businesses, schools, and homes. 1982 — Germany Recognizes the Roma Genocide Germany formally recognizes that Roma and Sinti victims were persecuted and murdered by Nazi Germany on racial grounds. Represents a major milestone in historical recognition. 1982 — Tylenol Murders Seven people die after cyanide-laced Tylenol capsules are sold in Chicago. Leads to modern tamper-resistant consumer packaging standards. 1983 — Internet TCP/IP Transition ARPANET transitions to TCP/IP networking protocols. Creates the technical foundation for the modern internet. Computer networks begin expanding globally. 1983–1990 — McMartin Preschool Case Began in Manhattan Beach, California. Allegations of child sexual abuse at the McMartin Preschool lead to one of the longest and most expensive criminal trials in American history. Investigations involve hundreds of children and highly controversial interviewing techniques. No convictions result. The case becomes central to debates regarding: Child abuse investigations Recovered memories Interviewing methods Media influence The Satanic Panic era 1984 — Bhopal Disaster Toxic gas leak at a pesticide plant in India. One of the deadliest industrial disasters in history. Thousands die and many more suffer long-term health effects. 1984–1985 — Ethiopian Famine Severe famine affects millions. International media coverage triggers large-scale global aid efforts. One of the most widely publicized humanitarian crises of the decade. 1984–1885 — West Point and Military Academy Abuse Scrutiny Reports and allegations involving: Hazing Sexual misconduct Sexual assault Abuse of authority Institutional handling of complaints Receive increasing public attention. The issue continues into the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s as military academies face growing scrutiny regarding reporting and accountability. 1985 — Live Aid Global charity concerts organized to raise funds for famine relief in Africa. One of the largest televised humanitarian events in history. 1986 — Chernobyl Nuclear reactor explosion and fire in Soviet Ukraine. Radioactive contamination spreads across Europe. Becomes the worst nuclear power accident in history. Strongly influences global nuclear policy and public opinion. 1986 — Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster Space Shuttle Challenger breaks apart shortly after launch. All seven crew members are killed. One of the most widely viewed tragedies in television history. 1986–1990s — Belgium Marc Dutroux Affair Belgian serial offender Marc Dutroux becomes linked to a major child abuse case. Public controversy develops around: Police failures Judicial failures Missing evidence Allegations involving elite networks Multiple witnesses die under unusual circumstances, fueling public distrust and conspiracy theories. The case becomes one of the largest scandals in modern Belgian history. 1987 — Black Monday Largest one-day percentage stock market decline in U.S. history. Financial markets around the world experience severe volatility. 1987–1989 — First Intifada Large Palestinian uprising occurs in the Israeli-occupied territories. Becomes a defining event in the modern Israeli-Palestinian conflict. 1988 — Lockerbie Bombing Pan Am Flight 103 explodes over Scotland. 270 people are killed. One of the deadliest terrorist attacks prior to September 11, 2001. Late 1980s — Presidio Child Abuse Investigation Allegations emerge involving children connected to military families at the Presidio Army base in San Francisco. The investigation occurs during the broader era of: Daycare abuse allegations Ritual abuse allegations Institutional abuse investigations Some convictions occur. Other allegations remain disputed and controversial. The case remains part of ongoing debates regarding child abuse investigations and institutional accountability. 1989 — Exxon Valdez Oil Spill One of the largest environmental disasters in U.S. history. Millions of gallons of crude oil spill into Alaska's Prince William Sound. Long-term ecological damage follows. 1989 — FBI and EPA Raid Rocky Flats Federal agents conduct an unprecedented criminal investigation of the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons facility. Raises questions regarding: Environmental contamination Nuclear waste management Government oversight 1989 — Tiananmen Square Protests Student-led demonstrations occur in Beijing. Chinese military forces suppress the protests. Becomes one of the defining political events of the late Cold War era. 1989 — Fall of the Berlin Wall Barrier separating East and West Berlin begins to come down. Symbolizes: The collapse of communist governments across Eastern Europe The approaching end of the Cold War German reunification One of the most recognizable events of the twentieth century. 1989 — Velvet Revolution Peaceful transition away from communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Part of the broader collapse of Soviet-aligned governments across Eastern Europe. 1989–1991 — World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee develops the World Wide Web. Creates the foundation for modern websites, online publishing, and internet communication. 1990 — German Reunification East and West Germany formally reunify. One of the most significant geopolitical events following the Cold War. 1990s Romania & Eastern Europe Children-for-Sale Network —In the economic chaos post-Communism, children from orphanages were trafficked to Western Europe and Israel.   1991 — Soviet Union Dissolves  -One of the most important geopolitical events of modern history 1991 — World Wide Web Opens 1992 — Production Ends Rocky Flats  -Weapons manufacturing ceases. Researcher Ken Adachi published two articles in 2007 that revealed that Prescott and George H.W. Bush were Nazi agents and that Nazis had infiltrated the OSS and were behind the creation of the CIA.  The first article begins as follows:  In 1998, 29-year-old Eric Berman of Florida began dating a local girl whose ninety-year-old father possessed "the largest hands I'd ever shaken."  Over time, "Big Ed," as he was known locally, revealed to the younger man that his real name was Otto Skorzeny, legendary SS (Schutzstaffel) commando of World War II fame, personal bodyguard to Adolf Hitler, and subsequent life-long CIA operative.  But that was just the beginning.  Before he died in 1999, Skorzeny revealed to Berman that President George Herbert Walker Bush was German, and that his real name was George Scherf Jr.  He claimed that President Bush's father, Prescott Bush, was really George Scherf Sr., and he was a high-ranking member of the Nazi Party.  Adachi has summarized Skorzeny's revelations as follows:  Skorzeny published books about his World War II exploits in varied editions starting in 1950 (My Commando Operations: The Memoirs of Hitler's Most Daring Commando).  Some of the more explosive highlights of Skorzeny's revelations to Berman include:  The true identity and Nazi-planned subversive mission of George Herbert Walker Bush, 41st President of the United States; alleged to have been brought to America (with Skorzeny as his bodyguard) and covertly adopted by Prescott Bush.  Skorzeny claimed that George H.W. Bush was born George H. Scherf, Jr., and that he was the son of George Scherf, Sr., the German-born assistant to inventor Nikola Tesla. Young George Scherf allegedly spent his first years in America snooping around Tesla's lab, helping his father in the 1930's steal or glean whatever they could of Tesla's work and transfer it to Germany.  Tesla had casually remarked to a couple named Rey, recently emigrated to the United States, of the mischievous prying nature of a "little monkey" around his lab whom he had dubbed "curious George."  This character would later become the basis of the children's book series, Curious George.  Co-author Alan Shalleck, murdered on Feb. 5, 2006, by the CIA  Skorzeny's role (with Reinhard Gehlen) in the assassination ofNikola Teslaby suffocation on January 6, 1943.  The pair tricked Tesla on January 5 into revealing the full details of his most important discoveries.  After killing him they stole his most valuable inventions, along with the contents of his safe, which were delivered to Hitler.  (James Rink says these included anti-gravity technology, teleportation, scalar weapons and free energy.) The faked April 1945 suicide of Hitler in the Berlin bunker (corroborating the 1948 CIA interrogation of Gestapo ChiefHeinrich Mueller, the Nordon Report, and the Russian 1946 Investigative Committee report to Stalin). Skorzeny's pivotal role in consolidating the intelligence assets of the Nazi Gestapo and the Nazi-infiltrated Office of Strategic Services (OSS) into theCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA)in 1947, working with George Herbert Walker Bush, Nazi SS spy master Reinhard Gehlen, "Wild Bill" Donovan, and fifth columnist, Allen Foster Dulles.  Skorzeny claimed central responsibility for setting up the Odessa operation to surreptitiously relocate 50,000 (fifty thousand) Nazis into North and South America with CIA complicity and protection. Skorzeny's claim thatReinhard Gehlen,Josef Mengele, and George H.W. Bush directly participated in the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and his brother, Robert F. Kennedy.  The Curious George character was based on George Herbert Walker Bush, who, in the 1930s, spied on Tesla for the Nazis.  2000s – Vatican & Catholic Church Abuse Scandals Abuse scandals emerge across more than 30 countries, including: United States Ireland Germany Australia Chile Canada France Belgium Independent commissions, court cases, and media investigations reveal widespread abuse and institutional cover-ups. The crisis becomes one of the largest religious scandals in modern history. September 11, 2001 — September 11 Attacks Coordinated terrorist attacks strike the United States. Hijacked aircraft hit: World Trade Center Pentagon A fourth aircraft crashes in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people are killed. One of the most consequential events of the modern era. Leads to: War in Afghanistan Expansion of intelligence and surveillance programs Department of Homeland Security Global War on Terror 2001–Present — Department of Homeland Security Era Created in response to the September 11 attacks. 2001 — China Joins WTO China joins the World Trade Organization. Accelerates globalization, manufacturing relocation, and international trade. Helps reshape the global economy during the following decades. 2001–2021 — War in Afghanistan Longest war in U.S. history. Began following the September 11 attacks. Ended with the withdrawal of U.S. and allied forces in 2021. 2003 — Iraq War United States and coalition forces invade Iraq. Results include: Fall of Saddam Hussein Regional instability Insurgency and sectarian conflict Long-term geopolitical consequences 2000s–2020s — United States & Global Epstein-Maxwell Network Jeffrey Epstein trafficked underage girls for sexual exploitation. Associates and visitors included: Politicians Business leaders Scientists Celebrities Royal figures Ghislaine Maxwell was convicted in 2021 for child sex trafficking-related offenses. The case generated continuing public debate regarding elite networks, accountability, intelligence connections, and institutional protection. 2000s–2020s — Haiti, Congo, Central African Republic UN Peacekeeper Abuse Scandals Multiple investigations document allegations involving UN peacekeepers. Allegations include: Sexual abuse Exploitation of children Human trafficking Transactional sex Critics accuse international institutions of inadequate accountability and weak prosecution efforts. August–September 2005 — Hurricane Katrina August 23, 2005 — Tropical depression forms. August 25, 2005 — First landfall in Florida. August 28, 2005 — Strengthens to Category 5 in the Gulf of Mexico. August 29, 2005 — Major landfall near Buras, Louisiana. Levee failures flood much of New Orleans. August–September 2005 — Massive rescue and recovery operations. Approximately: 1,800+ deaths More than $100 billion in damages One of the costliest natural disasters in U.S. history. 2007 — iPhone Introduced Apple iPhone introduced by Apple Helps launch the modern smartphone era. Transforms: Communication Media Commerce Social networking 2008 — Global Financial Crisis Largest financial crisis since the Great Depression. Major bank failures occur. Housing markets collapse. Governments conduct large-scale financial interventions. The crisis reshapes global economic policy and public trust in financial institutions. 2010 — Deepwater Horizon Disaster Explosion on an offshore drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico. One of the largest marine oil spills in history. Major environmental and economic consequences follow. 2010s–2020s — United States Foster Care and CPS Failures Numerous state investigations identify serious failures within child welfare systems. Recurring issues include: Missing children Placement failures Inadequate oversight Abuse within foster placements Human trafficking risks Reports from multiple states generate continuing debate over child protection policies and accountability. 2010s–2020s — United Kingdom Grooming Gang Scandals Major child exploitation networks uncovered in: Rotherham Rochdale Oxford Telford Official inquiries find repeated institutional failures by authorities to protect victims. The cases become among the largest child exploitation scandals in modern British history. 2011 — Fukushima Earthquake and tsunami trigger a nuclear disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi plant in Japan. Largest nuclear accident since Chernobyl. Renews worldwide debate regarding nuclear safety. 2011 — Elwha Dam Removal Completed One of the largest dam-removal projects in U.S. history. Restores salmon migration routes and river ecosystems in Washington State. 2011 — Arab Spring Popular uprisings spread across: Tunisia Egypt Libya Syria Yemen Bahrain Governments fall in several countries. Regional instability continues for years. 2013–2016 — Edward Snowden Revelations Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden reveals extensive government surveillance programs. Generates worldwide debate regarding privacy, intelligence operations, and civil liberties. 2014–Present — ISIS Conflict The Islamic State controls large territories in Iraq and Syria. Triggers international military operations and humanitarian crises. Department of Defense Child Abuse Reports Various allegations and investigations involve military childcare facilities and contractors. Cases raise concerns regarding: Child protection Oversight systems Institutional accountability 2020 — COVID-19 Pandemic Global outbreak of COVID-19. Results in: Millions of deaths worldwide Economic disruption Lockdowns Travel restrictions Vaccine campaigns One of the most significant global events of the twenty-first century. 2020s — Israel Safe Haven Allegations and Extradition Controversies Activists and journalists raise concerns regarding alleged difficulties extraditing some accused child sex offenders who relocate to Israel. Several high-profile cases receive international attention, including that of Malka Leifer. The issue generates debate regarding extradition procedures and international law. 2022–Present — Generative AI Era Public release of large-scale AI systems accelerates. Artificial intelligence begins transforming: Search Writing Programming Art Education Research Business operations One of the most significant technological shifts since the rise of the internet. 2022 — Russia–Ukraine War Escalation Russia launches a full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Largest war in Europe since World War II. Major effects on: Global energy markets Food supplies Military alliances International relations 1776–2026 — The United States and War There are three commonly cited ways to measure U.S. military involvement: The Popular Statistic: 90%–93% of U.S. History Spent at War Various military historians, researchers, and commentators have estimated that the United States has been involved in some form of armed conflict, military intervention, occupation, or combat operation for roughly 90% to 93% of its existence. Depending on the methodology used, some calculations conclude that the United States has spent approximately 225 years of its first 250 years engaged in military conflict somewhere in the world, leaving relatively few years without any active military operation. Congressional Research Service (CRS) Statistics The Congressional Research Service has documented hundreds of overseas military actions involving U.S. armed forces. A CRS compilation identified approximately 469 uses of U.S. armed forces abroad between 1798 and 2022, with roughly 251 occurring after 1991. These actions include: • Wars • Occupations • Bombing campaigns • Naval actions • Peacekeeping missions • Rescue operations • Shows of force • Military deployments abroad The CRS figure does not represent 469 wars. It represents documented military actions and interventions. Formal Declarations of War The United States has formally declared war only 11 times in its history, covering five major conflicts: • War of 1812 • Mexican–American War • Spanish–American War • World War I • World War II The last formal declaration of war occurred in 1942 during World War II. Major conflicts such as: • Korean War • Vietnam War • Gulf War • Afghanistan War • Iraq War were conducted without formal declarations of war. 1776–2026 United States existence: ~250 years Formal declarations of war: 11 Major military actions documented by CRS: 469+ Military actions since 1991: 251+ Estimated percentage of U.S. history involving military conflict, intervention, or combat operations: roughly 90% Depending on how war and military intervention are defined, the United States has been involved in military conflict or military operations for roughly 90 percent of its history. Every Country the United States Has Invaded, Bombed, or Staged a Coup In A complete accounting of nearly 400 U.S. military interventions across 80+ countries since 1776 - from the Barbary Wars to the War on Terror. Every invasion, bombing campaign, CIA-backed coup, and covert operation, mapped and documented. Last updated: February 2026 - Data sourced from the Military Intervention Project (Tufts University), Congressional Research Service, CIA declassified documents, and academic studies. ~400Military InterventionsSince 1776 (MIP dataset) 80+Countries TargetedRoughly 1/3 of all nations 200+Post-WWII OperationsHalf of all interventions 34%In Latin AmericaMost targeted region 25%+Post-Cold WarPace accelerating since 1991   By the Numbers: 250 Years of Military Intervention According to the Military Intervention Project (MIP) at Tufts University's Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy - the most comprehensive dataset ever compiled on the subject - the United States has conducted nearly 400 military interventions since 1776. That's roughly one every seven months for 250 years. Half of those interventions occurred after 1950, and more than a quarter have taken place since the end of the Cold War in 1991. The post-9/11 era ranks as the third most militarily active period in U.S. history, behind only the Cold War (1946-1989) and the era of "gunboat diplomacy" (1868-1917). The regional breakdown is striking: 34% of all U.S. interventions have been in Latin America and the Caribbean, 23% in East Asia and the Pacific, 14% in the Middle East and North Africa, and 13% in Europe and Central Asia. Latin America alone has been the target of more than one in three U.S. military interventions in American history. U.S. Military Interventions by Era Source: Military Intervention Project (MIP), Tufts University. Includes invasions, bombing, shows of force, and covert operations.   Interventions by Region (% of Total) Source: MIP dataset. Latin America has been the most frequent target throughout U.S. history.   The Acceleration Problem The U.S. conducted roughly 90 military interventions in its first 170 years (1776-1945). It conducted over 300 in the 80 years since. And unlike earlier eras when shows of force and threats were common, post-9/11 interventions have been overwhelmingly kinetic - actual combat operations, drone strikes, and special operations raids. Major Wars and Large-Scale Invasions Beyond the two World Wars, the United States has fought several major wars involving hundreds of thousands of troops, sustained combat over years, and enormous casualties. The Korean and Vietnam Wars alone killed over 90,000 Americans and millions of locals. The post-9/11 wars in Afghanistan and Iraq consumed over $8 trillion and resulted in an estimated 900,000+ deaths. Major U.S. Wars and Large-Scale Military Campaigns (Post-1945) Country Years Type U.S. Peak Troops U.S. Deaths Est. Total Deaths President(s) Key Details Korea 1950-1953 War 326,000 36,574 2-3 million Truman, Eisenhower Fought North Korea and China to a stalemate; Korea remains divided today Vietnam 1955-1975 War 543,000 58,220 1.3-3.4 million Eisenhower thru Ford Longest war until Afghanistan; U.S. withdrew in 1973, Saigon fell 1975 Laos 1964-1973 Bombing Secret war ~700 200,000+ Johnson, Nixon "Secret war" - 2M+ tons of bombs dropped, more than all of WWII combined Cambodia 1969-1973 Bombing Secret ops - 100,000-500,000 Nixon Secret bombing campaign; destabilization helped Khmer Rouge rise Iraq (Gulf War) 1990-1991 War 540,000 383 20,000-35,000 H.W. Bush Expelled Iraq from Kuwait in 42-day campaign; coalition of 35 nations Afghanistan 2001-2021 War 100,000 2,461 176,000+ Bush thru Biden 20-year war; Taliban retook power within days of U.S. withdrawal Iraq (Invasion) 2003-2011 War 170,000 4,431 185,000-500,000+ Bush, Obama No WMDs found; sectarian civil war followed; ISIS emerged from aftermath   Invasions, Occupations, and the "Banana Wars" From the late 1800s through the 1930s, the U.S. military intervened repeatedly in the Caribbean and Central America to protect American business interests - particularly those of the United Fruit Company. These so-called "Banana Wars" saw Marines occupy Haiti (19 years), the Dominican Republic (8 years), Nicaragua (21 years on and off), and Cuba (multiple times). The pattern continued well into the Cold War era and beyond. U.S. Invasions and Military Occupations (Selected) Country Years Type Duration Context Cuba 1898-1902 Invasion 4 years Spanish-American War; U.S. occupied Cuba, imposed Platt Amendment giving right to intervene Philippines 1899-1913 War 14 years Philippine-American War killed 200,000-1 million Filipinos; U.S. ruled until 1946 Cuba 1906-1909 Occupation 3 years Second U.S. occupation under Governor Magoon Nicaragua 1912-1933 Occupation 21 years Marines occupied repeatedly; fought guerrilla war vs. Sandino Haiti 1915-1934 Occupation 19 years Full military occupation; forced new constitution allowing foreign land ownership Dominican Rep. 1916-1924 Occupation 8 years Marine occupation after 28 revolutions in 50 years Russia 1918-1920 Invasion 2 years 12,000 U.S. troops intervened in Russian Civil War at Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok Mexico 1914-1917 Invasion 3 years Occupation of Veracruz; Pancho Villa Expedition with 10,000 troops Grenada 1983 Invasion Weeks Operation Urgent Fury; 7,600 troops ousted leftist military government Panama 1989-1990 Invasion Weeks 27,000 troops to overthrow Manuel Noriega; 500+ Panamanian civilians killed Somalia 1992-1995 Invasion 3 years "Humanitarian" mission turned into urban warfare; Black Hawk Down incident Haiti 1994-1995 Invasion 1 year 20,000 troops to reinstate President Aristide after military coup The Smedley Butler Quote Marine Major General Smedley Butler, the most decorated Marine of his era, wrote in 1935: "I spent 33 years in the Marines. I helped make Mexico safe for American oil interests. I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys. I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefit of Wall Street. I helped purify Nicaragua for the International Banking House of Brown Brothers." Countries Bombed by the United States (Post-1945) Since the end of World War II, the United States has bombed at least 30 countries. These range from massive sustained campaigns (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Iraq) to limited strikes (Libya 1986, Sudan 1998) to ongoing drone operations (Yemen, Somalia, Pakistan). The populations of countries bombed by the U.S. since 1945 represent roughly one-third of humanity. Countries Bombed or Struck by the U.S. Since 1945 Country Year(s) Type President Scale & Context China 1945-1946 Bombing Truman Post-WWII support for Nationalists in Chinese Civil War Korea 1950-1953 Bombing Truman, Eisenhower 635,000 tons of bombs + 32,557 tons of napalm; every major city destroyed Guatemala 1954 Bombing Eisenhower CIA planes bombed Guatemala City during coup against Arbenz Indonesia 1958 Bombing Eisenhower CIA-backed bombing of government targets during rebel uprising Cuba 1961 Bombing Kennedy CIA B-26 bombers struck Cuban airfields during Bay of Pigs invasion Vietnam 1961-1975 Bombing Kennedy thru Ford 7.5 million tons of bombs - more than all of WWII across all theaters Laos 1964-1973 Bombing Johnson, Nixon 2 million+ tons; 580,000 bombing missions; most heavily bombed country per capita in history Cambodia 1969-1973 Bombing Nixon Operation Menu/Freedom Deal; 2.7 million tons; Khmer Rouge rose from chaos Lebanon 1983-1984 Naval Reagan Battleship New Jersey shelled positions after Marine barracks bombing Libya 1986 Bombing Reagan Operation El Dorado Canyon; strikes on Tripoli and Benghazi Iran 1987-1988 Naval Reagan Operation Praying Mantis; sank Iranian naval vessels; shot down civilian airliner killing 290 Iraq 1991-2003 Bombing H.W. Bush thru Bush Desert Storm (88,500 tons in 43 days) + 12 years of no-fly zone enforcement strikes Kuwait 1991 Bombing H.W. Bush Massive air campaign to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation Bosnia 1994-1995 Bombing Clinton NATO air strikes against Bosnian Serb positions Sudan 1998 Bombing Clinton Cruise missiles struck Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory (falsely claimed to be WMD site) Afghanistan 1998, 2001-2021 Bombing Clinton thru Biden 1998 strikes on al-Qaeda camps; then 20 years of sustained bombing Yugoslavia/Serbia 1999 Bombing Clinton 78-day NATO air campaign; 38,000 combat sorties; struck Belgrade Pakistan 2004-2018 Drone Bush thru Trump 400+ CIA drone strikes; 2,500-4,000 killed including up to 1,000 civilians Somalia 2007-present Drone Bush thru present Ongoing drone strikes and special ops against al-Shabaab Yemen 2002-present Drone Bush thru present Drone strikes against AQAP + 2024-25 strikes against Houthi targets Libya 2011, 2015-2019 Bombing Obama, Trump NATO air campaign toppled Gaddafi; followed by strikes against ISIS in Libya Syria 2014-present Bombing Obama thru present Sustained air campaign vs. ISIS; plus direct strikes on Syrian military (2017, 2018) Iraq 2014-present Bombing Obama thru present Return to Iraq to fight ISIS; plus strikes on Iran-backed militias Iran 2025, 2026 Bombing Trump Joint US-Israel strikes (Operation Epic Fury); targets in Tehran, Isfahan, Qom, Karaj, Kermanshah - nuclear, military, and leadership sites Tonnage Comparison: U.S. Bombs Dropped by Conflict Sources: Air Force Historical Research Agency, various. Includes all ordnance types.   Laos: The Most Bombed Country on Earth Between 1964 and 1973, the U.S. dropped over 2 million tons of ordnance on Laos - equivalent to a planeload of bombs every 8 minutes, 24 hours a day, for 9 years. That's more than was dropped on Germany and Japan combined during WWII. Up to 30% of the bombs didn't detonate and remain in the ground today, killing an estimated 50 Laotians per year. The population of Laos at the time was roughly 3 million. CIA Coups, Regime Change, and Covert Operations The CIA has publicly acknowledged involvement in at least seven successful regime changes. But the full list of confirmed and strongly suspected U.S.-backed coups, assassination attempts, and destabilization campaigns is considerably longer. During the Cold War, the CIA toppled democratically elected governments, propped up dictators, trained death squads, and funded insurgencies across Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Several of these operations had catastrophic long-term consequences. The 1953 coup in Iran led directly to the 1979 Islamic Revolution. The 1954 Guatemala coup triggered a 36-year civil war. The destabilization of Cambodia helped the Khmer Rouge seize power, leading to the deaths of 1.5-2 million people. CIA-Backed Coups, Regime Changes, and Destabilization Campaigns Country Year Type CIA Codename Target / Leader Overthrown What Followed Syria 1949 Coup - Elected govt; installed Husni al-Za'im First of many Syrian coups; Za'im himself overthrown months later Iran 1953 Coup TPAJAX PM Mohammad Mosaddegh Shah restored to absolute power; 1979 Islamic Revolution followed Guatemala 1954 Coup PBSuccess Pres. Jacobo Arbenz Series of military dictators; 36-year civil war killing 200,000 Indonesia 1958 Covert - Pres. Sukarno (failed) CIA backed Permesta rebels; operation exposed and failed Congo 1960-1965 Coup - PM Patrice Lumumba CIA sent poison for assassination; Mobutu installed, ruled 32 years Cuba 1961 Invasion - Fidel Castro (failed) Bay of Pigs; 8 CIA assassination plots; 60+ year embargo Dominican Rep. 1961 Coup - Dictator Rafael Trujillo CIA provided weapons to assassins; democratic elections followed South Vietnam 1963 Coup - Pres. Ngo Dinh Diem U.S. gave green light to coup; Diem killed; Vietnam War escalated Ecuador 1963 Coup - Pres. Arosemena Military junta installed; banned Communist Party Brazil 1964 Coup Brother Sam Pres. Joao Goulart 21 years of military dictatorship Bolivia 1964 Covert - Pres. Victor Paz Estenssoro Military junta; CIA later tracked and assisted killing of Che Guevara (1967) Indonesia 1965-1967 Covert - Pres. Sukarno CIA provided kill lists; Suharto's anti-communist purge killed 500,000-1 million Greece 1967 Coup - Democratic government Military junta ("the Colonels") ruled until 1974 Chile 1970-1973 Coup FUBELT Pres. Salvador Allende Nixon ordered economy to "scream"; Pinochet dictatorship killed 3,000+ Afghanistan 1979-1989 Proxy Cyclone Soviet-backed government $3B+ to mujahideen; some fighters later formed al-Qaeda and Taliban Nicaragua 1981-1990 Proxy - Sandinista government CIA trained Contras; mined harbors; Iran-Contra scandal Libya 2011 Bombing - Muammar Gaddafi NATO bombing led to regime collapse; Libya became a failed state Syria 2012-2017 Covert Timber Sycamore Pres. Bashar al-Assad CIA armed ~10,000 rebels at $1B/year; Assad survived until 2024 rebel offensive U.S. Interventions by Type (Post-1945) Categorized from MIP data, CRS reports, and CIA declassified documents.   The War on Terror and the Drone Age Since September 11, 2001, the United States has conducted military operations in at least 24 countries under the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF). This single piece of legislation, passed three days after 9/11, has been used to justify operations in countries the original authors never imagined, from Niger to the Philippines to Cameroon. The drone program, operated by both the CIA and the U.S. military, has launched strikes in at least seven countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Libya, Iraq, and Syria. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism estimates that U.S. drone strikes have killed between 8,858 and 16,901 people across Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, and Afghanistan alone, including 910-2,200 civilians and 283-454 children. Meanwhile, U.S. Special Operations forces are deployed in approximately three-quarters of the world's countries at any given time - roughly 150 nations. As researchers Kushi and Toft noted: "While U.S. ambassadors are operating in one-third of the world's countries, U.S. special operators and forces are active in three-fourths." Countries with U.S. Military Operations Post-9/11 Country Type of Operation Years Active Key Details Afghanistan War 2001-2021 Full-scale invasion and 20-year occupation; $2.3 trillion spent Iraq War 2003-2011, 2014- Invasion, occupation, then return to fight ISIS; $3 trillion spent Pakistan Drone 2004-2018 400+ drone strikes in tribal areas; Osama bin Laden killed in Abbottabad (2011) Somalia Drone 2007-present Drone strikes, special ops raids, and proxy forces vs. al-Shabaab Yemen Drone 2002-present Drone war vs. AQAP; then strikes vs. Houthis during Red Sea crisis (2024-25) Syria Bombing 2014-present Anti-ISIS air campaign + covert rebel training + direct strikes on Syrian military Libya Bombing 2011, 2015-19 NATO air war toppled Gaddafi; subsequent strikes against ISIS in Libya Philippines Covert 2002-present Special ops "advisors" vs. Abu Sayyaf and ISIS-aligned groups Niger Covert 2013-2024 Drone base; 4 Green Berets killed in 2017 ambush; expelled after 2023 coup Cameroon Covert 2015-present Special ops support for counter-Boko Haram operations Iran Bombing 2025, 2026 Joint US-Israel strikes on nuclear sites, military infrastructure, and leadership targets; Trump declared "major combat operations" and called for regime change The Costs of the Post-9/11 Wars According to Brown University's "Costs of War" project, the post-9/11 wars have cost an estimated $8 trillion in direct spending and future obligations (including veteran care). An estimated 900,000+ people have been killed, including 387,000+ civilians. Over 38 million people have been displaced from their homes - more than any conflict since WWII except the partition of India. The War on Terror and the Drone Age Since September 11, 2001, the United States has conducted military operations in at least 24 countries under the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF). This single piece of legislation, passed three days after 9/11, has been used to justify operations in countries the original authors never imagined, from Niger to the Philippines to Cameroon. The drone program, operated by both the CIA and the U.S. military, has launched strikes in at least seven countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Libya, Iraq, and Syria. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism estimates that U.S. drone strikes have killed between 8,858 and 16,901 people across Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, and Afghanistan alone, including 910-2,200 civilians and 283-454 children. Meanwhile, U.S. Special Operations forces are deployed in approximately three-quarters of the world's countries at any given time - roughly 150 nations. As researchers Kushi and Toft noted: "While U.S. ambassadors are operating in one-third of the world's countries, U.S. special operators and forces are active in three-fourths." The Complete Country List: Every Nation Targeted Below is the most comprehensive list we can compile of every country where the U.S. has conducted a military intervention - defined as an invasion, bombing, occupation, naval engagement, coup, covert destabilization campaign, proxy war, or drone strike. Countries are listed alphabetically with the type(s) of intervention and time period. Complete List of Countries Where the U.S. Has Intervened Militarily # Country Type(s) Period(s) Region 1 Afghanistan War Proxy 1979-89, 1998, 2001-2021 Central Asia 2 Angola Proxy 1975-1991 Africa 3 Argentina Covert 1890, 1976 (backed junta) Latin America 4 Bolivia Coup 1964, 1967 Latin America 5 Bosnia Bombing 1994-1995 Europe 6 Brazil Coup 1964 Latin America 7 Cambodia Bombing 1969-1975 East Asia 8 Cameroon Covert 2015-present Africa 9 Chad Covert 1983, 2006-present Africa 10 Chile Coup 1970-1973 Latin America 11 China Bombing Naval 1845-1866, 1945-46, 1950s East Asia 12 Colombia Covert 1901, 1989-present Latin America 13 Congo/Zaire Coup 1960-1965 Africa 14 Costa Rica Covert 1955 Latin America 15 Cuba Invasion Bombing Covert 1898-1902, 1906-09, 1961, 1962 Caribbean 16 Dominican Republic Invasion Occupation Coup 1903, 1914, 1916-24, 1961, 1965 Caribbean 17 Ecuador Coup 1960-1963 Latin America 18 Egypt Covert 1956, 1957 Middle East 19 El Salvador Proxy 1980-1992 Latin America 20 Fiji Naval 1855, 1858 Pacific 21 Germany Occupation 1945-present (bases) Europe 22 Ghana Coup 1966 Africa 23 Greece Proxy Coup 1947-50, 1967 Europe 24 Grenada Invasion 1983 Caribbean 25 Guatemala Coup Bombing 1954, 1960-1996 Latin America 26 Guyana Covert 1953-1964 Latin America 27 Haiti Invasion Occupation 1891, 1914-34, 1994-95, 2004 Caribbean 28 Honduras Invasion Covert 1903, 1907, 1983-89 Latin America 29 Indonesia Bombing Covert 1958, 1965-67 East Asia 30 Iran Coup Naval Bombing 1953, 1987-88, 2025, 2026 Middle East 31 Iraq War Coup Bombing 1960, 1963, 1991-present Middle East 32 Italy Covert 1948 Europe 33 Japan Occupation 1945-present (bases) East Asia 34 Korea (North) War Bombing 1950-1953 East Asia 35 Korea (South) Occupation 1945-present (bases) East Asia 36 Kuwait Bombing 1991 Middle East 37 Laos Bombing Covert 1958-73 East Asia 38 Lebanon Invasion Naval 1958, 1982-84 Middle East 39 Libya Bombing 1981, 1986, 1989, 2011, 2015-19 North Africa 40 Mexico Invasion 1836, 1846-48, 1914-17 Latin America 41 Mozambique Covert 2021-present Africa 42 Nicaragua Invasion Occupation Proxy 1854, 1909-33, 1981-90 Latin America 43 Niger Drone Covert 2013-2024 Africa 44 Pakistan Drone 2004-2018 South Asia 45 Panama Invasion 1846, 1856, 1903, 1958, 1989 Latin America 46 Peru Naval 1835-36 Latin America 47 Philippines War Covert 1898-1913, 2002-present East Asia 48 Puerto Rico Invasion 1898 Caribbean 49 Russia Invasion 1918-1920 Europe/Asia 50 Samoa Naval 1888-1899 Pacific 51 Serbia/Yugoslavia Bombing 1993-95, 1999 Europe 52 Somalia Invasion Drone 1992-95, 2007-present Africa 53 South Vietnam War Coup 1955-75 East Asia 54 Sudan Bombing 1998 Africa 55 Sumatra Naval 1832, 1838 East Asia 56 Syria Coup Bombing Covert 1949, 1957, 2012-present Middle East 57 Tibet/China Covert 1955-1970s East Asia 58 Tripoli (Libya) Naval 1801-1805 North Africa 59 Turkey Naval 1849, 1922 Middle East 60 Uruguay Naval 1855, 1858, 1868 Latin America 61 Venezuela Covert 2002, 2019-20 Latin America 62 Yemen Drone Bombing 2002-present Middle East A Note on This List This list is almost certainly incomplete. The U.S. government has acknowledged that its covert operations - particularly those conducted by Special Operations forces under secretive authorities like Section 127e and Section 1202 - often evade public documentation. The MIP researchers at Tufts University themselves note that their post-9/11 count is "an undercount." Additionally, this list excludes purely economic warfare (sanctions) and diplomatic coercion, which would add many more countries. The Costs of the Post-9/11 Wars According to Brown University's "Costs of War" project, the post-9/11 wars have cost an estimated $8 trillion in direct spending and future obligations (including veteran care). An estimated 900,000+ people have been killed, including 387,000+ civilians. Over 38 million people have been displaced from their homes - more than any conflict since WWII except the partition of India. Interventions by President Some presidents dramatically escalated U.S. military interventionism, while others pulled back. The post-WWII pattern shows a ratchet effect - each era tends to be more interventionist than the last, with "peacetime" presidents still maintaining operations started by their predecessors. Notable New Interventions Launched by Post-WWII President Counts new countries entered or new major military campaigns initiated. Does not count inherited operations.   The Long Shadow: Consequences and Blowback One of the most striking patterns in U.S. foreign intervention is "blowback" - the unintended long-term consequences that come back to haunt American interests. The CIA's own analysts coined the term. The 1953 Iran coup created the conditions for the 1979 Islamic Revolution and the hostage crisis. The CIA's arming of Afghan mujahideen in the 1980s helped create al-Qaeda and the Taliban. The 2003 Iraq invasion created the power vacuum from which ISIS emerged. The 2011 Libya bombing turned a functioning (if authoritarian) state into a failed state that became a gateway for migration to Europe and a haven for extremist groups. And on February 28, 2026 - 73 years after the CIA overthrew Iran's democratically elected prime minister - the U.S. launched "major combat operations" against Iran in what President Trump explicitly framed as regime change, telling Iranians to "take over your government" once the bombing was finished. As Al Jazeera's Alan Fisher observed: "They've done it before. This time, they're doing it with weapons and bombs rather than covertly through the CIA." Iran retaliated with strikes on U.S. bases across the Gulf, widening the conflict to at least six additional countries. A 2023 study published in the journal Public Choice found that CIA-sponsored regime changes in Latin America resulted in a 10% reduction in per-capita income within five years and massive declines in democratic governance that persisted for at least six years. The researchers from Berger et al. concluded that these interventions had "serious political, economic, and civil repercussions" that should be counted against any perceived strategic benefits. By the Numbers: The Human Cost Estimates vary widely, but researchers have attempted to tally the civilian toll of U.S. military interventions since 1945. The most conservative estimates place the figure at several million deaths. Some researchers, including James Lucas of the website WarIsACrime.org, have estimated that U.S. military interventions have been responsible for between 20 and 30 million deaths since the end of World War II, though this figure is debated. What is not debated is that the scale of U.S. military intervention across the globe is historically unprecedented for any single nation during peacetime. Sources & References Military Intervention Project (MIP) - Kushi, S. & Toft, M.D. "Introducing the Military Intervention Project: A New Dataset on US Military Interventions, 1776-2019." Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2023. Congressional Research Service - "Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798-2024" (RL30172, updated regularly). CIA Declassified Documents - Historical Review Program, including TPAJAX (Iran), PBSuccess (Guatemala), and FUBELT (Chile) collections. Brown University - Watson Institute "Costs of War" Project (costs, casualties, and displacement figures for post-9/11 wars). Bureau of Investigative Journalism - Drone warfare databases (Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Afghanistan). Foreign Policy - "Mapped: The 7 Governments the U.S. Has Overthrown" (Stuster, 2013). History.com - "10 Times America Helped Overthrow a Foreign Government" (2022). Wikipedia - "Foreign interventions by the United States," "Timeline of United States military operations," "United States involvement in regime change." Zoltan Grossman, Evergreen State College - "From Wounded Knee to Syria: U.S. Military Interventions Since 1890." U.S. Air Force Historical Research Agency - Bombing tonnage data by conflict. Berger, D. et al. "The consequences of CIA-sponsored regime change in Latin America." Public Choice, 2023. Global Policy Forum / Archive.org - "US Interventions" compilation. Source:  Every Country the United States Has Invaded, Bombed, or Staged a Coup In | DaveManuel.com The USA  "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.   However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?   So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? Should we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -   legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.   The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent."  IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft  References USA History   UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - Sovereignty    Federal Reserve - The Enemy of America    A history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truth    bankruptcyofus.pdf    War and Emergency Powers       Media Release: The People Are the Enemy    "Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:    Seize property     Organize and control production     Seize commodities     Assign military forces abroad     Institute martial law     Seize transportation     Seize communications     Regulate private enterprise     Restrict travel     Control lives of citizens     (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society       The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).      The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.     (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)        The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)        The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)        The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)        The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)        Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b))        There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)        There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)        According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)        New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111, subpart B 44.103 (b) (2) (2) )        Social Security is not insurance or a contract, nor is there a Trust Fund.  (Helvering v. Davis 301 US 619 Steward Co. v. Davis 301 US 548)        Your Social Security check comes directly from the IMF (International Monetary Fund), which is an agency of the United Nations. (It says "U.S. Department of Treasury" at the top left corner, which again is part of the U.N. as pointed out above)        You own NO property!! Slaves can't own property. Read carefully the Deed to the property you think is yours.  You are listed as a TENANT. (Senate Document 43, 73rd Congress 1st Session)        The most powerful court in America is NOT the United States Supreme court, but rather the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. (42 PA. C.S.A. 502)        The King of England financially backed both sides of the American Revolutionary War..   (Treaty of Versailles-July 16, 1782 Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80)        You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)        America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)        Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)        The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)        A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)        The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)        The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)        The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)        We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)        Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)      "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)       It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)      Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)        "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.         The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.       The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.   The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.     Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.