From Spider-Man to a new Steven Spielberg movie, we know the TV and movies you'll want to watch this summer. I'm excited about this film. I just know suspense, entry, aliens, and I'm like, alright, Spielberg, I'm in. Check out the Summer Guide from Pop Culture Happy Hour, listen on the NPR app or wherever you get podcasts.
This is Planet Money from NPR. The other day, I donned a hairnet and a very unfortunate beard in it. Hey. And got to visit a place I'd wanted to for a very long time.
Is that in the dog? Smell the produce, palettes, racking, the whole thing. This place is Loki, one of the wonders of the modern world. It's an enormous refrigerated warehouse filled with enough food to feed an entire city.
My guide to this miracle is Nicola Twillie. We're heading in. It's noisy. Food journalist hosted the podcast Gastropod, an author of a recent book about refrigeration called Frostbite.
Nikki has become obsessed with places like this. She spent the last decade visiting them and even worked in some of them. It's a cool world. It's a cool world.
The warehouse we're in today is enormous, the size of two football fields. Careful, careful, careful. Prutes and veggies are coming in from all over the world and going out to supermarkets and restaurants across Southern California and beyond. There are all these storage rooms with very particular micro-climates.
Each the perfect temporary home for a bell pepper or a jackfruit or a horseradish. Because as Nikki tells us, just because a fruit or a vegetable has been harvested doesn't mean it's dead exactly. It's just in a sort of suspended animation. It's like us.
It's still breathing. It is breathing and it has a certain number of breaths it can take before it dies. I'm sorry, a pet of lettuce has been decapitated. How could it possibly be alive?
I mean, it is dying. But so are we. I hate to break it to you. And like us, it has a certain number of breaths it's going to take before it dies.
And the whole trick with produce is making it breathe more slowly. What you do by refrigerating it, each fruit and vegetable has a perfect temperature to optimize that breathing. Nikki leads me through one of those vinyl strip doors with all the pieces of plastic hanging down and into a slightly louder room. This one is for things like eggplants and tomatoes.
Okay, so did you notice the temperature change? Yeah, it's much warmer in here. It is much warmer. There are pallets full of Roma tomatoes, but also Beastake tomatoes, heirloom tomatoes, grape tomatoes, cherry tomatoes.
Probably some other tomato varieties I've never heard of. All kept at a balmy 45 degrees. Um, tomatoes, which I'm going to say tomatoes, I'm sorry I grew up in England and I haven't made the leap for that word. Deal with it people.
Exactly. Listen, try it yourself. You might prefer it. Um, tomatoes are really, really sensitive.
If they're stored too cold for too long, they actually lose their ability to generate flavor. Yeah, so you can use do not refrigerate your tomatoes. That's why supermarket tomatoes often taste so bad. Being there in that warehouse, it was like being in a cathedral devoted to everything humanity has learned in the last 150 years about how to refrigerate our food.
And being there with Nicki, well, that was like getting a tour from the hope of refrigeration. It literally changed everything from the contents of the microbes that live in our gut to the invention of the hoodie. You're wearing a hoodie right now that wouldn't exist without refrigerated warehouses to Irish independence, you know, the politics of Central America. The cheeseburger did not exist until refrigeration made it possible.
So it is transformative on every level. Hello and welcome to Plan of Money. I'm Alexi Hormans, Gazi and I'm Nick Fountain. Today, an entire show about refrigeration, how it changed the course of history, and remade time and space.
We'll meet the chemists who crisscross the country by train in her quest for food safety and the notorious cheats gate who brought meat to the masses. I'm gonna make a suggestion. We should do the rest of this interview in a warm place. I'm so onboard.
I love the gold, but not that much. From Spider-Man to a new Steven Spielberg movie, we know that TV and movies you'll wanna watch this summer. I'm excited about this film. I just know suspense, intrigue, aliens.
I'm like, all right, Spielberg, I'm in. Check out the summer guide from Pop Culture Happy Hour, listen on the NPR app or wherever you get podcasts. To truly appreciate the miracle of widespread refrigeration, let us go back to the time before that miracle. Say the mid-1800s.
It was a simpler time, but also a smellier time, in part because of food. Unfrigerated food rots pretty quickly, and this is especially true for meat. Yeah, without refrigeration, if you want fresh meat, you have two, maybe three days between when you slaughter an animal and when you have to eat it. Otherwise, bad things will happen.
And one interesting thing Nicky's book points out is that this was just really economically inefficient. In the mid-1800s, cows were raised in one place and then brought to the big urban centers. They would either have to walk or come in on trains. Cattle would commute hundreds of miles to get slaughtered in the city.
And you can imagine they're losing a bunch of weight while they're doing that. So kind of wasteful, but also pretty unsanitary. Then they have to be slaughtered in the city center, which is relatively close to where all the people are living. And so you get these horrific scenes of blood and gore.
To cut down on the cattle, commutes, and clean up all that blood and gore, the world needed a special kind of hero. One who would revolutionize how America got its food. Enter into this world a notorious cheapskate. Who is that?
Gustavus Swift. Yeah, he's a he's a New Englander with a New Englander sense of thrift. Cheapskate Gustavus Swift was born in 1839. His brother, Noble, was a butcher and Young Stav, as he was known, followed in his brother's footsteps at the age of 14.
Yeah, Gustavus would travel from Cape Cod where he lived. He would buy a cow outside of Boston, slaughter and quarter there, and then bring the meat back to the Cape to sell it door to door. But he couldn't help but notice that he always had to leave like half of the cow behind. Only 50% of it is edible.
The rest is essentially trash. What are we talking about? The bones, the cingles, that's what it's done. Bones, intestines, blood.
There's a lot of hide there, there's a lot of hoof there. And this drove Gustavus Swift up the wall. He is famous for not wanting to let a single thing go to waste. And there were uses for these byproducts.
These were the raw materials for things like soap or fertilizer or glue. But you had to have a certain scale to make it worthwhile. Gustavus figured if he could just centralize meat production and slaughter all the animals in one place, he could gather up all the bones and sinews and hooves anyone would ever want in Selva. So he moves to Chicago, which is sort of the hub for all the beef coming off the Great Plains, and gets to work setting up giant butcher shops.
Or as they came to be known, meat packing plants, where cow carcasses would be yanked around on hooks and each worker would do a little discrete part of the slaughtering and butchering process. These were called disassembly lines, which, fun fact, inspired Henry Ford's assembly lines. Also, not so fun fact, meat packing plants were horrendous for animals and for the people who worked there. And so they also inspired Upton Sinclair's book, The Jungle.
Yeah, pretty nasty stuff. But at least now they could use all the cow. Hooray! Still, it wasn't like there was a market in Chicago itself for all that meat.
To get this to really work Gustavus needed to figure out how to get his very perishable product and his meat to cities on the East Coast. And at the time, people had started to experiment with using ice on railway cars to keep meat cold, and they could not make it work. Oh, what was the problem? You might think ice just would make it cold and no big deal.
That works in your yeti. It does not work in a railcar full of slaughtered meat. So if any of the meat touches the ice, it gets frozen, burned and wet. If the ice melts too fast, there's too much water.
Meat doesn't like that. It gets slimy. Bacteria grows. If the air doesn't circulate, well, you'll get hot spots and cold spots, and the hot meat will rot, and the cold meat might freeze.
I mean, if the train pauses, you could lose the entire load. I mean, it was just a disaster. And so everyone had sort of decided this isn't going to work. But not Gustavus.
Gustavus said about this with gusto, I guess, and tried everything. He tried putting the ice at the bottom. He tried putting the ice at the top. He tried putting the ice at the sides.
He had one brilliant idea where there was a fan attached to the axle of the railcar, which made sure the air circulation was there. Great idea until the train stopped and then the wheel wasn't turning in the van. But finally, Gustavus and an engineer succeeded in designing a train card that would keep meat cold. It was well insulated.
You could add ice from the top along the journey, and it would automatically push cold air down from that ice. In the end, Gustavus's plan to centralize meat processing and make it more economically efficient totally worked. He was able to significantly undercut what his competitors were charging for meat. He was able to sell it so cheaply because, think about it, he's not paying to ship the half that you can't sell, and he's monetizing all the byproducts.
Wow. So he was able to just slash the price, and there were enough meat starved for working people in the cities who had not been able to afford meat before, who suddenly could afford meat, that his business took off. Now, there was one last innovation that Gustavus popularized that we have not mentioned yet. One that was maybe even more important than those refrigerated train cars.
He figured out how to cool down his packing plans for the meat almost immediately post-slaughter, and that meant his beef was refrigerated from the time that it was butchered to the time that it arrived and whatever he was going to. This technique ended up being applied to all kinds of foods. Mickey says it's how we got the world we live in today. Think about all the things you can buy at the grocery store, green beans from California, strawberries from Mexico, butter from New Zealand.
And you have to imagine a series of refrigerated links extending and connecting your fridge all the way back to the farm. So when something like a green bean is harvested, immediately it is pre-cooled, then you store in a cold storage unit, you ship in a refrigerated truck, it goes to a refrigerated warehouse like we saw today. They ship it in a refrigerated truck, the grocery store puts it on a refrigerated shelf, and you purchase it. The fancy term for this end-to-end refrigeration?
The cold chain. So the cold chain is all of those cold spaces that mean that your food should be able to move from the farm essentially to the point of purchase without ever being outside of the cold. But to understand how we got to this cold chain connected world we live in now, we need to talk about one more big chapter in the history of refrigeration. Because sure, Gustavus Swift had come up with new ways of keeping food cold all along the supply chain.
But that did not mean that Americans were immediately ready to trust those foods. Oh yeah, well, just imagine for all of human history, you have known what fresh means and fresh means it was picked or it was slaughtered in the past couple of days within like, I don't know, dozen miles nearby and recently. And now people like Gustavus were trying to sell you meat from halfway across the country that had been slaughtered, who knows what? It sounded like a recipe for food poisoning.
And it's not like this fear was unfounded. At the beginning, refrigeration was a pretty imprecise art. There's no one overseeing this. Where housemen are like, well, seems like a good temperature for eggs.
We'll store them at this temperature. No one studied. Is this a right temperature for eggs? And what about for milk or chicken or seafood?
No one had done the research until who walked onto the scene. Oh, one of my favorite people in the book, M.E. Pennington, went by Polly, except for when she was going as Dr. M.
Pennington. So that the men of the era would not realize that she was a woman. And she is the person who basically made Americans trust refrigeration. That is her legacy.
Polly Pennington was a chemist. Around the turn of the century, she started working for the Philadelphia Bureau of Health, cleaning up the city's milk supply. From there, she moved on to the federal government. Her job, figuring out how to safely store and transport all of these different kinds of foods, which was way more exciting than it sounds.
She traveled the country. She had a little train car that she would attach to, you know, Gustavus's rail cars and she would sample the chickens and make sure it was at the right temperature. She was riding the rails for food safety. She was riding the rails for food safety.
There's amazing pictures of her in her sensible divided skirt, reaching into these ice-filled rail cars. And she became an absolute icon in the food industry. Name a person in the food industry more iconic, Lexi. Do it!
Uh, uh, Geifietti. Sorry, sorry, the truth hurts. But leaving that particular icon aside, if you've ever checked the grade on the side of your egg carton, you have Polly Pennington to think. If you've ever eaten American chicken or shrimp or fish and not gotten sick, tip your hat to Polly.
But if you've ever thrown donkey sauce on it, that's gonna have to be credited to all American food icon, Geifietti. Okay, Polly Pennington's legacy is maybe a bit more substantial. She did change the way people in the industry soared and transported their food, and she did launch a kind of public relations campaign about all this stuff. And at the end of her life, she had managed to make Americans go from thinking that refrigerated food was a dangerous scam to believing that anything that wasn't refrigerated couldn't possibly be fresh.
It was literal 180. She made Americans believe in refrigeration. Polly Pennington fully pasteurized, grade A legend. Pour some out for her.
Some two percent. Because look at all the things that her work and the work of Gustavus before her brought about. Yeah, let's just take a moment, Nick, to kind of see it and revel in all of the incredible ripple effects from the massive option of refrigeration in the cold chain here. Let us.
Yes, like how refrigeration is this kind of time machine? An apple can be picked and stored for 10 months. The cold chain means that we can live in this sort of endless summer where everything is always in season. And it didn't just shift our sense of time.
Nicky says it also shifted our sense of space. It totally transformed the geography of farming. Used to be if you wanted salad greens, you bought them from whatever farmer happened to live near you. But these days, a large majority of the lettuce our country eats comes from the two places with the climate best suited to growing lettuce, the Salinas Valley in California and Yuma, Arizona.
That concentration wouldn't be possible without the cold chain. So it allows the advantage of climate and soil to overtake the advantage of proximity that previously someone close to a city who was growing lettuce would have had. And when you start to change how people put food on the table, you start to change all sorts of things. Nicky says, think about how refrigeration changed the role of women in society.
So pre refrigerator, women had a huge amount of labor, canning fruits and vegetables in the summer to last through the winter, and then shopping every day if they lived in a city, trying to buy fresh food for that evening's meals. So there's no such thing as frozen convenience food. And as home refrigeration, frozen food expands in the 20th century, guess what rises in lockstep? Women in the workforce.
There you go. No comment. Cold chain caused Irish independence. But here's how it's thinking worked.
A lot of beef for the English was raised in Ireland, but once frozen beef could be imported from places like South America, then the price of Irish beef went way down. And that made life really hard in Ireland, fueled discontent among the Irish tenant farmers, and made British landlords more willing to sell their land. Before you know it, you have Irish independence. So many surprising ripple effects.
Who knew? Quite the theory. I might buy it. I'll take it.
Coming up in a hot minute. From Spider-Man to a new Steven Spielberg movie, we know that TV and movies you'll want to watch this summer. I'm excited about this film. I just know suspense, intrigue, aliens.
And I'm like, all right, Spielberg, I'm in. Check out the summer guide from pop culture happy hour, listen on the NPR app or wherever you get podcasts. Okay. Obviously refrigeration is not perfect.
So real quick, let's run through a few of the downsides according to Nikki. Starting with food actually doesn't taste the same anymore. In places that have not adapted to refrigeration, they taste American food and they say they're not going to eat it. They taste American food and they say it tastes dead.
And they're just tasting the tomatoes. Not just. Yeah, it's cool to be able to eat cherries that were picked a month ago in Chile, but they're not going to taste as good as fresh ones. As soon as the cherry is picked, it starts to lose its acidity and its flavor.
But still, you can get cherries pretty much all year round. All kinds of food. We have more of it and it is cheaper, but it is not as delicious. Okay, so that's taste.
Problem number two has to do with waste. And this is a little surprising, right? The whole point of refrigeration is to keep food from spoiling. Prior to refrigeration between 30 and 40% of food would go bad before it ever even reached the market.
It would have to be thrown away. So refrigeration has minimized that. But that waste hasn't gone away. It's just moved further down the timeline.
The food waste on the consumer end where we've purchased it from the grocery store or it's gone to restaurants that has gone up to 30 or 40% of all foods. Refrigeration along with a bunch of other things has brought the cost of food way down, which makes it easy to be a little careless with our food purchases. I mean, right now in my crisper drawer, there are like three bags of aspirationally bought arugula. One of those is going to get tossed.
A shutter to even look in my crisper drawer. And last but certainly not least, there's the problem of how much energy all this refrigeration uses. So yeah, it's a sad irony that as we build more and more artificially cold space, our naturally cold space disappears thanks to climate change. Refrigeration accounts for 2% of the world's emissions.
That's on par with aviation. And that number is set to grow rapidly. As much of the developing world builds out its own cold chain. Some teeny, tiny good news here.
There is some low hanging fruit when it comes to the energy consumption of the cold chain. Nicky says there are some folks in the industry who are right now trying to get everyone on board with slightly turning up the thermostats in their freezers. From minus 18 to minus 15 degrees, those are Celsius. It's okay.
Very, very cold, way below freezing to a little bit less below freezing. Exactly. Turned out minus 18 degrees Celsius. That might be colder than it needs to be.
And it's been estimated that just that tiny move, moving frozen food around at minus 15, which is perfectly safe, is equivalent of getting like 4 million cars off the road. Wow. So just three degrees will have a huge impact. Huge impact.
So just like every other major new technology, the cold chain has come with all sorts of trade-offs and unintended consequences. But refrigeration has made our food system cheaper and safer and more abundant than ever. Yeah, before working on this story, I got to admit, I kind of took refrigeration for granted. We've grown up with it just quietly humming along in the background.
But after reading Nicky's book, I started to think of the cold chain as like this force that can bend time, space and change the economy. Even change history. Yeah, now every time I walk by my fridge these days, I can't help but just, you know, crack a smile, give it a little pat on its sweet, stainless steel little belly and say, thank you. You know, that'll do fridge.
That'll do. Is there some undersong technology or person who didn't get their due in the economic history textbooks or podcasts? Let us know. Send us an email at planetmoney.org or you can find us on a lot of different social media.
Today's episode of Planet Money was produced by James Sneed. It was edited by Keith Romer, fact-checked by Ciena Juarez and engineered by Valentino Rodriguez Sanchez. Alex Goldmark is our executive producer. I'm Alex Hoor with Gazi.
I'm Nick Fountain. This is NPR. Thank you for listening. And give your refrigerator a pat on its belly.
From Spider-Man to a new Steven Spielberg movie, we know the TV and movies you'll want to watch this summer. I'm excited about this film. I just know suspense, intrigue, aliens. And I'm like, alright, Spielberg, I'm in.
Check out the Summer Guide from Pop Culture Happy Hour, listen on the NPR app or wherever you get podcasts.