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This episode was suggested by several listeners Stephen Shannon Luna Stacey SEL and more if you'd like to make a suggestion You can do so on Facebook and Instagram at morbid curiosity podcast on Twitter at morbid podcast and on our website www.morbid curiosity podcast.com this episode contains discussions of death by poisoning suicide abortion and human and animal Experimentation if these aren't topics you want to hear about this may be a good episode to skip the information in this Episode is meant for interest only all of the plants mentioned in this episode can cause injury or death the remedies discussed are historical and not Recommended as forms of medical treatment. We do not support the ingestion or use of any of these plants or any known toxic plans for that matter And therefore the MCP and I cannot be held responsible for any injury caused by the misuse of these plants Please be responsible And if you think you have ingested something poisonous call your local emergency services immediately Humans are fascinated by gore and violence, but even more so the mysterious and unsolved Interest in these disturbing and unpleasant subjects is called morbid curiosity and it has gripped hundreds of people throughout the ages I am one of those people. My name is Halle and this is the morbid curiosity podcast Poisonous plants have played a major part in history be that in medicine mythology or murder This is because of the intense effects that they can have on the human body in the first plants that kill episode We went over the documented uses of poisonous plants throughout history But emphasized those plants that were used in what was known as the witches flying potion those plants were hen bane hemlock Belladonna mandrake Aconite and opium so if you'd like to hear more about these plants, please listen to our episode plants that kill which came out in June of 2019 last time we featured plants that contained toxic substances known as alkaloids Organic compounds that produce many strong physiological effects when ingested by humans such as convulsions paralysis and hallucinations This time we're going to add cardiac glycosides to the repertoire of poisonous substances Cardiac glycosides are organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and increase its rate of contractions They have been used as treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias in the past But they are so toxic that they aren't widely used anymore Because of these effects and others toxic plants have been utilized for pharmacological purposes from very early in human history Some of the toxic substances contained in these plants have more recently been isolated from their plant origins and are used in modern medicine today Others are too toxic to be beneficial in medicine, but do have a history of being used as poisons There is so much information out there on this topic that unfortunately I can't include it all and we'll have to summarize my apologies But if I went on and on this episode could definitely be over two hours long The discovery of the toxic properties of plants and the development of the practical uses has been lost to history It's likely the poisonous effects were discovered by accident and then experimentation either on oneself or others resulted in the cautious use of certain plants for the discovered effects They cause the professional practice of medicine Which is often attributed to the ancient Greeks has never backed away from attempting to use toxic plants as medical treatments The earliest usage was likely in purgatives meaning things that make humans throw up or have diarrhea Many toxic plants cause this reaction when they are ingested as the body tries to rid itself of the poison Hundreds of books called herbals which catalog the uses of certain plants have been written throughout history Many of these books reference the four humors and the humeral system of medicine, which is credited to Hippocrates sometime in the first century BCE Although its origins are likely much older Humorism was a complex system of diagnosis and treatment with the goal being to balance the four humors blood Flem black bile and yellow bile while blood and Flem are real bodily substances The context in which they are used in this system of medicine was not each person had some amount of these four theoretical substances And if they were out of balance the person would present symptoms of illness It was almost impossible to have all four humors in perfect balance Therefore many books were written in attempts to aid in getting as close as possible While most of the treatments surrounded diet some involved bleeding a process we now know to be more harmful than helpful Circulation wasn't discovered until 1628 and even then bleeding was still used as a treatment for hundreds of years Purging was another common treatment the most effective purges came from toxic plants Herbal texts advised incremental doses of plants either in a tea a paste or sometimes eaten raw in order to avoid outright poisoning the patient Sometimes toxic plants were used in animals where a tea of sorts was flushed into the anus of the patient using a cloister or a glyster pipe This was thought to be the most direct way to introduce medicinal herbs into the human body both bleeding and purging continued and likely hastened a patient's fate Well into the 1800s no one spoke out against these practices until Paracelsis in the 16th century and later Nicholas Culpepper and apothecary in the mid-17th century Toxic plants have also been used throughout history by religious practitioners to aid in speaking to the gods or inducing visions Several plants mentioned in the previous plants that kill episode such as Mandrake were famous for divisions They produced ergot a fungus that grows most commonly on the rye plant also causes hallucinations along with nausea Weakness vomiting and the feeling of the limbs being on fire This was called Saint Anthony's fire in medieval manuscripts because people didn't know what was causing these hallucinogenic reactions Many thought they were being attacked by the devil demonic entities or witches We went into hallucinogenic plants and witchcraft more in the first plants that kill episode So if you'd like to hear more about that check out that episode Most of the early uses of toxic plants are contained in medical books and herbals Most of these were written by physicians surgeons and apothecaries Mistakes could be fatal so many times what was written in one herbal was copied word for word into any new herbals by new scribes However many times these recipes were not correct to begin with This is why many useless but also dangerous herbal remedies were passed on for centuries First I'm going to summarize the history of using toxic plants as medicine I did cover this in the first plants that kill episode But I feel it's important to give context to the plants that I'm going to talk about today The Greeks and Romans were some of the first cultures to record the uses of plants They documented uses from older cultures as well as from the peoples they conquered Hippocrates is attributed with one of the most influential collections of medical writing Called the Corpus Hippocraticum which contains some sound and vice on caring for the sick But also a wealth of information on the uses of certain plants Unfortunately not all of them do as they are described and many are focused on balancing the humors Diascorities a Greek surgeon under Roman Emperor Nero between 50 and 70 CE Wrote a large volume called Day Materia Medica which describes over 600 plants with medical or practical uses However he gave rather brief descriptions of these plants So later scribes in northern Europe and England had trouble identifying some of them And some debate still rages today over which plants he meant Diascorities work was copied and referenced all the way up until the 17th century by herbalists like Nicholas Culpepper Contemporary to Diascorities was Pliny the Elder who wrote a series of books called The Naturalis Historia in 77 CE which in several of its 10 volumes Was contained information about plants and trees with medical virtues Pliny too was not very discerning with what he wrote and passed on many superstitions instead of actual herbal remedies His work was also copied without question for hundreds of years afterwards Following the fall of Rome in the 5th century CE much of this information was lost or sequestered by the Catholic church It was kept in monasteries and read and utilized by monks Many herbal writers of the medieval period looked back on the Roman era as a golden age of medicine Therefore they made sure to repeat the exact recipes printed in Roman writings into new medieval herbals The earliest herbal written in English was Bald's leech book which was written sometime between 90950 CE Leech is the Anglo-Saxon or Old English term for physician or healer The book contained mostly native plants of England instead of copying the Mediterranean plants recorded by Hippocrates, Diascorities and Pliny It did reference these writers however Arabic herbal writers also referenced Greek and Roman medical texts but added that knowledge to their own large body of medical work Avicina, a Persian physician, wrote his canon of medicine around 1025 CE Which contained an overview of medical knowledge of the Islamic world, classic Greek and Roman medicine As well as the medical traditions of China, Persia and India This book became the standard of medicine until the 18th century and contained many effective herbal remedies English monasteries during the Norman period often included large medical gardens and functioned almost like hospitals Caring for the sick was considered the greatest Christian charity The Normans who conquered the Anglo-Saxons valued Anglo-Saxon medical knowledge and encouraged monks to study and catalog the plants in Anglo-Saxon texts In the 12th century, herbal remedy shops called apothecaries developed with roots in these monasteries Early pharmacies then grew out of these apothecaries and so on until the evolution of the first modern pharmacies in the mid-1800s John of Ardern and English Surgeon did many of his own experiments using toxic plants in the late 1300s He recorded the ones that worked which included many uses for opiates and other alkaloids as sleep potions and painkillers Many of his treatments are still in use today Paracelsus, a Swiss alchemist, doctor and mystic, wrote in the mid 1500s that medicine should be practical It should not just be copied from a book but tested, observed for what actually works and then recorded He also came up with the saying that the dose makes the poison and recorded many herbal remedies that utilized toxic plants in small doses Many of his remedies would have been effective, although dangerous if dosage was misjudged During the Renaissance period, what were called receipt books were compiled by upper-class women These books contained recipes for medicines, food and usually several purgatives These utilized toxic plants and some recipes in the book were purely poisons Many upper-class homes included a still room, a place for distilling plant materials and this room was considered a woman's domain Hugh Morgan, the physician to Queen Elizabeth I, assisted another physician, William Turner, to write a series of herbals in 1551 These books were written in English instead of Latin and established the correct names for English plants Their books had a precedent for all future English herbals John Gerard, one of the most famous writers of herbal texts, published his catalogue of over 1000 plants in 1596 Using his own vast gardens as a reference, he also translated in herbal from Latin and included woodcut illustrations Most of these were toxic plants Apothecary Nicholas Culpepper published his herbal in plain English in 1652 It was called the English physician and included common garden plants that could be used as medicine Not all of which were effective, but he was attempting to help the poor treat themselves Instead of going to expensive physicians and apothecaries Lastly, Maude Greve, a London herbalist, wrote the last of the old-style herbals She published her book, A Modern Herbal, in 1931 and grew helpful plants to use during World War II She included both traditional and more recent scientifically tested uses of plants that were known at the time As well as dosage instructions and cultivation notes Now that context has been given, I want to get into some specific toxic plants Ones that physicians have attempted or are attempting to use in modern medicine But first, let's pause for a word from our sponsors Our regular sponsor is audible.com Audible can provide you with interesting and engaging audiobooks In fact, there are over 180,000 of them to choose from Which you can listen to on your iPhone, Android, Kindle or other MP3 players MCP listeners can get a free audiobook download and a 30-day free trial of audible.com By going to www.audibletrial.com slash MCP You can also find this link on our Facebook page and website If you sign up for the free trial, you get a free 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games, discussed the medicine of Westeros, and the plague pits of London All of these rewards aside, your patronage supports the podcast and keeps new episodes coming I can't keep doing this podcast without you, so go to bit.ly slash morbidpatron That's B-I-T dot L-Y slash morbidpatron to choose your rewards and support the MCP You'll have my eternal gratitude And now, back to the podcast It was later discovered that this was due to the toxin in the mixture Only acting on the body once it entered the bloodstream The first mention of Aeropoison comes from 1596 when English explorer Sir Walter Raleigh wrote about it during his explorations in Trinidad and Guyana This could have been Kirare, but it's not known for sure The Aeropoison interested other explorers, some of whom brought samples back to Europe In 1780, Abbe Feliz Fontana deduced that the poison worked in the muscles, not on the heart and nerves As was previously thought by European researchers In 1825, Charles Waterton described his experiments with Kirare, in which he was able to keep a poisoned donkey alive with artificial respiration In 1832, Alexander von Humboldt gave the first western account of how the poison was actually prepared from plants by the indigenous peoples of the Orinoco River in South America In 1839, Kirare was tested as a modifier for the psychiatric treatment known as convulsive therapy What we now call electroshock therapy, or ECT The treatment-induced seizures, which sometimes resulted in dislocations and fractures due to the patient's body Kirare, called intercostrin at the time, was tested as a relaxant to keep the patient from moving too much during the treatment It was also thought to be an analgesic or painkiller, but patients reported that they could feel the full intensity of the pain of ECT, but were unable to react to it Kirare was also tested as a treatment for epilepsy and paraplegia, but the harmful respiratory side effects were too much of a risk for it to be useful Walter Freeman, the inventor of the ice-pake lobotomy, suggested Kirare might be useful for some neurological disorders, but did not tested himself With more research, it was revealed that there were two plants in particular that gave Kirare its paralyzing effects Sometimes only one of them was used with other ingredients, but other times they were used together One was Condrodendron Tomentosum, a woody climbing plant in the Moonseed family, Menispermicea Its active alkaloid is tubo-kirareen, but this wasn't known until much later The other plant was Strychnos Toxifera, another woody vine whose bark contained the alkaloid Toxiferin We'll talk more about another plant from the Strychnos family in a moment Both active agents caused similar muscle paralysis when it entered the bloodstream, either by arrowpoint or wound contamination The effects began at the limbs, then moved toward the body, and finally to the diaphragm Death occurred through asphyxiation when the muscles of respiration remained paralyzed for a prolonged period Tubo-kirareen was isolated in 1935 by Harold King Soon after, it was experimented with as a complimentary agent for surgery, making it easier for doctors to operate while the patient was under anesthesia This way, not only was the patient unconscious, but their body was paralyzed, making it easier for surgeons to work and lower the rate of accidents Resulting from unconscious twitching By 1941, around 30,000 patients had been given tubo-kirareen The combination of an analgesic and muscle relaxant during surgery became the standard anesthetic technique in England Today, modern surgery still employs what is known as balanced anesthesia, but different drugs without respiratory side effects are now used As well as better monitoring techniques to make sure the patient is safe throughout surgery, but this method started with kirare As I mentioned the Strychnos family, let's talk about Strychnine The alkaloid Strychnine is ubiquitous in many murder mystery novels, as the Poisoner's weapon of choice It comes from a tree, Strychnos Noxvamica, which can be found in India and Southeast Asia, and is also known as Poisoner's Nut or Quaker's buttons The Latin name Noxvamica means vomiting nut, as that is one of the things that happens if you eat one of the nuts Because of this, it was used historically as a purgative, and its toxicity was well known in ancient India The seeds contain Strychnine and Brucine, another alkaloid, and dried blossoms and bark contain both as well The fruit are about the size of a large apple, with a smooth hard shell which turns orange when ripe The flesh of the fruit is white and jelly-like, and each fruit contains five seeds, which are shaped like flat, circular disks, covered in small hairs Crushing or chewing the seeds releases the alkaloids inside Symptoms of poisoning can appear within 15 to 60 minutes of ingestion Strychnine causes violent muscle contractions, rapid heartbeat, sweating, lock jaw, and facial spasms, followed by muscular twitching all over the body, Convolions, dilated pupils, and opusotenous, in which the spine arches backward violently, creating a C-shape with the human body, where the head and lower limbs bend backward, and the trunk arches forward Death occurs due to asphyxiation, as the respiratory muscles are paralyzed as well The worst part is the person remains conscious and lucid the entire time, as little as 30 to 120 mg is lethal There is no known antidote to Strychnine, but recovery is possible if swift medical attention is received, such as intubation, to maintain airway control Strychnine can be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the eye's mouth or skin to have an effect It currently has known known medical uses, but has been proclaimed to treat things like cancer and heart disease by modern alternative medicine peddlers There is no evidence that Strychnine does anything other than poison those who ingest it The seeds from Noxelomica were imported to Europe soon after their discovery, but were especially popular as purgatives in England during the reign of the tutors between 1485 and 1603 At the time, it was known to use them with caution By 1640, the powdered seed had become a popular rodent poison In 1818, the alkaloid Strychnine was isolated from the seed It became immediately popular as a pest control agent in its pure form, as it was cheap and easy to buy from a drugist This ease of acquisition also made it an easy weapon for murder In the 19th and 20th centuries, athletes attempted to use Strychnine as a performance enhancer Thinking it might be similar to Caffeine with its muscle twitch effect, they were very wrong Author Agatha Christie popularized Strychnine as a tool of murder in many of her mystery novels, which she wrote during the 1920s to 40s Her famous characters include Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple Another substance used by Agatha Christie in her murder mysteries was digitalis, which is derived from a foxglove plant Foxglove, also known as digitalis purpuria, is a flowering plant that's native to western and southwestern Europe, west and central Asia and northwest Africa The bell-shaped flowers grow atop tall stalks in spiky bunches They range from purple and pink to white and yellow, and sometimes have dark or light spots in the mouth of the bell They grow in a range of habitats, including woods, moorland and rocky slopes All parts of the plant are extremely poisonous The active agents are digitoxin and digoxin, which are cardiac glycosides Ingestion causes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice, blurred and halo vision, abnormal heart rate, heart arrhythmias, weakness, collapse, tremors, seizures and death Early physicians attempted to use this plant as medicine, but were hesitant because of the minute threshold between the benefits and horrible suffering Most ancient peoples had no use for it because of its lethality Still, it was used in attempt to treat epilepsy on several occasions William Withering, an English botanist and physician, is usually credited for bringing to Ditalis to modern medicine as a treatment for heart disease, which was then called dropsy, in the late 1700s He learned about its potential from an elderly woman in Shropshire, England, who was known as the local herbalist For nine years, he experimented with the plant using different parts, harvesting it at different times of the year, and using different processes to harvest the active agents He published his findings in 1785, in and account of the fox glove and some of its medicinal uses, suggesting fox glove could be used to treat heart conditions Through scientific testing over the years, it was found that digitoxin and digoxin can calm irregular arterial fibrillation or rapid irregular heartbeats The modern medicines that are derived from fox glove are called digitalin, and were approved as a medication for heart failure in 1998 The two brand names that are most well known are Krista Digin and Lanoxin However, in more recent years, studies have shown a link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality in women So digitalin has begun to fall out of favor Another plant that has traditionally been associated with murder, but may have some medical uses, is cerebroodalum Commonly known as suicide tree, mintola, and othalum, this tree is native to India and South Asia, and grows in coastal swamps and marshy areas It looks quite similar to oleander, another poisonous plant, as they are in the same family The fruit, when unripe, resembles a small young mango A fibrous shell encloses two fleshy white fruits, and an oval kernel between them A white latex is contained in the stems and leaves, which has been used as a purgative, but is also known to irritate the skin The oily kernel or seed has been traditionally mixed with other oils, and rubbed on the skin as an insect repellent, or sometimes burned for light The seeds, however, contain suberin, a cardiac glycoside, one seed contains a fatal dose of suberin Suberin is quite difficult to detect in an autopsy, and the bitter taste of it can be masked by spices, making it a commonly used agent for murder and suicide, hence the nickname, suicitry Death usually takes around two days to occur During that time, the victim experiences a burning sensation in their mouth, violent vomiting, irregular breathing, headache, irregular heartbeat, coma, and finally death After death, the only way to detect the poison is with high performance chromatography, coupled with mass spectrometry of the victim's tissues In 2004, a study was published documenting over 500 cases of suberin poisoning between 1989 and 1999 in the southwestern Indian state of Kerala One in ten of all poisonings during those years were from suberin, and three-quarters of the victims were young women It's theorized that suberin was being used to kill young wives that didn't meet the exacting standards of some Indian families This also suggests that many cases of alleged suicide may have been murder instead In 2011, a study was published which tested methanol compounds in the leaves of suberodolum as anti-cancer drugs due to their cell-destroying capabilities They were tested on ovarian and breast cancer cell lines, as well as normal kidney cells The compound exhibited cytotoxic effects against breast and ovarian cancer cells, showing that it may be useful in the fight against those cancers I didn't find any articles discussing any future developments of the study, but if anyone knows anything more, please let me know The last toxic plant I want to discuss doesn't contain alkaloids or cardiac glycosides Instead, it contains something called a monotirpene Monotirpenes are organic compounds that are derived from essential oils or concentrated volatile oils that exist in certain plants They have been used in a variety of industries, but mostly in cosmetics, agriculture, and pharmaceutical arenas The substance I want to talk about is cyclohexanon, pulagon, which is contained in the plant known as peneeroyl Menta pulagium, also known as peneeroyl, squamint, mosquito plant, and pudding grass is part of the mint family Accordingly, when crushed, the leaves give off a scent similar to spearmint It's native to Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East, and has been recorded as an imanigog, or menstruation stimulant And to induce abortion as far back as ancient Greece In his natural history, Pliny the Elder documented peneeroyl as an imanigog, and an expaler of, quote, dead fetuses Galen didn't mention that it could be used as an abortifacient, just as an imanigog One of few known female Greek physicians, Metrodora, suggested adding peneeroyl to wine in order to terminate an unwanted pregnancy Ancient fertility and anti-fertility drugs have traditionally been assigned to the realm of magic and superstition by anthropologists and historians But more modern investigation has revealed that some of these herbal remedies, including peneeroyl, really were effective The risks, however, weren't well understood, and complications that we now know arise from using peneeroyl were not always connected with using it in history The historic trail of oral anti-fertility drugs begins in ancient Greece, but disappears during the medieval era This has to do with the hidden nature of female culture during that time period Most physicians were male, and most surviving medical texts in the West, at least up until the 12th century, were written by males They wrote of sexual practices, but had little knowledge of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, or birth Women were practicing medicine, despite evidence not being included in these medical texts John M.
Riddle, a medical historian, wrote several articles about women's medicine throughout history He and other researchers have determined that midwives were the physicians of women, and though few wrote anything about their practice, their knowledge was passed down in the form of apprenticeships They knew the uses of certain plants, where to find them, how to prepare them, dosage, and the best time to take them during the menstrual cycle Much of this knowledge was lost when male physicians began to include gynecology and professional medicine in the 1800s By that point, terminating a pregnancy was made into a criminal act in many western countries, so the knowledge of anti-fertility drugs was excluded from any professional medical writing By the time society began to look for medical means of birth control in the 20th century, the historical trail had gone completely cold Traces, however, have been found in folk practices of today, the herbal medicinal practices of India and China, as well as in the mountainous regions of the United States Archaeology and sparse references in ancient medical texts also give hints at what must have been a thriving oral culture of women's medicine Today, many researchers are re-examining these ancient references and finding that some of them were effective The chemical in Pennyroyal, cyclohexanononpulagon, has been found in recent research to cause the uterine lining to contract, and then shed as it would During a normal period. For people who experience irregular periods or cystic ovary syndrome, Pennyroyal could be used to regulate the menstrual cycle As a tea, it's subtle enough to induce menstrual flow, with minimal risk of negative health effects, make no mistake, however, there are still risks, and it is not recommended for general use in any capacity The effects of Pennyroyal vary by the volume and concentration of epilagon, dosage is very difficult when using the plant leaves themselves If less than 10 milliliters is ingested, the person will suffer nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and dizziness Larger doses, however, can result in multi-organ failure, which can lead to death quickly afterward In animal studies, the liver reacts to pulagon to form many other toxic compounds that wreak havoc on the body However, how the compound induces menstruation and abortion is still unknown Pennyroyal wasn't only used for menstruation, the name pulegium is associated with the Latin word pulex, meaning flea This is because it was also thought to drive away fleas when smeared on the body The ancient Greeks and Romans also cooked with Pennyroyal quite a lot due to its mild minty flavor Early English settlers in Virginia brought dried Pennyroyal with them in order to eradicate pests such as fleas In the 17th century, Nicholas Culpepper mentioned Pennyroyal in his English physician, saying it was useful for abortion, but also constipation, hemorrhoid relief, blemishes, and toothaches A tea of Pennyroyal leaves was suggested for colds, fevers, coughs, indigestion, liver and kidney problems, as well as headaches Some even suggested it was good for influenza, smallpox, and tuberculosis However, there is no scientific evidence that Pennyroyal helps any of these conditions in any way Today, Pennyroyal oil is still commercially available despite its extreme toxicity The oil is toxic to both animals and humans, even in small amounts It can be absorbed through the skin, so even handling the oil can be dangerous Tiny amounts can be fatal to infants and children and should be avoided at all costs Toxic plants are everywhere, and their effects have been well documented over the years and used for better or for worse While they're interesting to hear about, they remain incredibly dangerous The fact that so many poisonous and toxic substances are found all around us is why toxic plants spark our morbid curiosity The Morbid Curiosity Podcast was produced by H. 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